Class 12 : Poltical Science (English) – Lesson 15.Recent Developments in Indian Politics
EXPLANATION & SUMMARY
🌟 Introduction
After 1989, Indian politics underwent major shifts. The era of one-party dominance ended; new coalitions, regional parties, identity movements, and economic reforms reshaped democracy. This chapter analyses how these forces transformed governance, representation, and policy.
🧭 1. End of Congress Dominance
🟢 1989 General Election broke Congress majority; Janata Dal formed government with outside support.
🟡 Marked start of coalition era, weakening centralized authority.
🔵 Rise of issue-based alliances and competitive federalism.
💡 Concept: “Congress System” (Rajni Kothari) signified broad umbrella politics; its decline opened space for plural power centres.
🏛️ 2. Rise of Coalition Politics
🟣 No single party gained majority → coalition governments (1989–1999).
🔹 Examples:
National Front (1989)
United Front (1996)
NDA (1998 onwards)
🔸 Regional parties (DMK, TDP, SP, BSP) became kingmakers.
✅ Led to consensus-building but sometimes instability.
✏️ Note: Coalition era deepened democracy by involving diverse interests.
⚖️ 3. Mandal Commission & Social Justice
📜 Mandal Report (1980) implemented 1990 → 27 % OBC reservation.
🟢 Transformed politics into caste-based mobilisation (“Mandalisation”).
🧭 Brought backward classes into power structure.
🔴 Also triggered anti-reservation protests, reflecting social tensions.
💡 Concept: Shift from identity by ideology to identity by social justice.
🕉️ 4. Religious Mobilisation – Ayodhya Movement
🏰 Ram Janmabhoomi issue politicised religion.
🟡 BJP and allied organisations mobilised around temple demand.
⚠️ Culminated in Babri Masjid demolition (1992) → communal violence.
🔍 Changed political discourse towards cultural nationalism.
💰 5. Economic Reforms 1991
📉 Balance-of-payments crisis → LPG (Liberalisation-Privatisation-Globalisation).
🧾 Introduced market economy, reduced state control.
🟢 Supported later by both UPA & NDA → policy consensus.
🌍 Integrated India with global economy; widened inequality debates.
✏️ Note: Economic reform = shared platform cutting across parties.
🗳️ 6. From Fragmentation to Re-Centralisation
🟣 1998–2004 NDA (BJP-led) → relative stability.
🔵 2004–2014 UPA (Congress-led) → 10 years continuity.
🔴 2014 & 2019 BJP majority → return of strong centre.
💡 Trend: Voters oscillated between coalition balance & decisive mandates.
🗾 7. Role of Regional Parties
⚙️ Focus on state issues: development, identity, autonomy.
🟢 Increased federal bargaining power.
🧭 Examples:
DMK/AIADMK – Tamil Nadu
TMC – West Bengal
BJD – Odisha
🧩 Led to multi-party federalism.
📡 8. Emergence of New Movements
🧠 Civil-society & rights-based activism grew (RTI, NREGA, environment).
📢 Citizens demanded accountability, transparency, participation.
🔍 Expanded democratic agenda beyond elections.
🕊️ 9. Challenges to Democracy
🧨 Communalism, corruption, criminalisation, money power.
⚖️ Need for electoral reforms, judicial activism, strong institutions.
📈 10. Contemporary Scenario
🔵 2014 onwards: Centralised leadership, welfare + nationalism mix.
🟡 Digital campaigns, social-media politics, youth engagement.
🧭 Ongoing debate between coalition inclusiveness vs decisive governance.
🧩 Summary (~300 words)
From 1989, India moved from Congress dominance to coalition politics. Fragmented verdicts compelled parties to form alliances, giving regional actors greater voice. The Mandal Commission institutionalised social justice and reshaped caste equations. Simultaneously, the Ram Janmabhoomi movement infused religion into politics, aiding BJP’s rise.
The 1991 economic reforms initiated a liberal economy, creating bipartisan consensus on growth orientation. Though early coalitions were unstable, they broadened representation. Gradually, stable alliances (NDA, UPA) and later BJP’s majority (2014, 2019) signalled partial return of centralisation.
Regional parties entrenched federalism, while civil-society movements expanded democratic participation.
Contemporary politics reflects a blend of identity, development, nationalism, and welfare. Despite challenges—communalism, inequality, money power—India’s democracy continues evolving, balancing pluralism with effective governance.
📝 Quick Recap
🔹 End of one-party rule (1989)
🔹 Coalition governments & regional influence
🔹 Mandal Commission → caste politics
🔹 Ram Janmabhoomi → religious mobilisation
🔹 1991 economic reforms → liberalisation consensus
🔹 Gradual return to strong central leadership
🔹 Rise of activism & rights-based politics
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QUESTIONS FROM TEXTBOOK
🔵 Question 1:
Unscramble a bunch of disarranged press clipping file of Unni–Munni and arrange the file chronologically.
(a) Implementation of the recommendation of the Mandal Commission
(b) Formation of the Janata Dal
(c) Supreme Court Judgment on the Ram Janmabhoomi
(d) Assassination of Indira Gandhi
(e) The formation of NDA government
(f) Formation of the UPA government
🟢 Answer:
Chronological order (earliest to latest):
1️⃣ (d) Assassination of Indira Gandhi – 1984
2️⃣ (b) Formation of the Janata Dal – 1988
3️⃣ (a) Implementation of the recommendation of the Mandal Commission – 1990
4️⃣ (c) Supreme Court Judgment on the Ram Janmabhoomi – 1992
5️⃣ (e) The formation of NDA government – 1998
6️⃣ (f) Formation of the UPA government – 2004
✔️ Final Order: d → b → a → c → e → f
🔵 Question 2:
Match the following:
Column A Column B
(a) Politics of Consensus (iv) Agreement on Economic policies
(b) Caste based parties (ii) Rise of OBCs
(c) Personal Law and Gender Justice (i) Shah Bano case
(d) Growing strength of Regional parties (iii) Coalition government
🟢 Answer:
(a) ➡️ (iv) Agreement on Economic policies
(b) ➡️ (ii) Rise of OBCs
(c) ➡️ (i) Shah Bano case
(d) ➡️ (iii) Coalition government
✔️ Final Match:
(a)–(iv), (b)–(ii), (c)–(i), (d)–(iii)
🔵 Question 3:
State the main issues in Indian politics in the period after 1989. What different configurations of political parties these differences lead to?
🟢 Answer:
After 1989, the main political issues were:
🔹 Decline of one-party dominance (Congress) and rise of coalition politics.
🔹 Caste-based mobilisation after Mandal Commission implementation.
🔹 Religious politics – rise of BJP and Ayodhya movement.
🔹 Economic reforms (1991) – Liberalisation, Privatisation, Globalisation.
🔹 Regional aspirations and empowerment of regional parties.
➡️ These changes led to different party configurations:
1️⃣ National Front (1989) – Janata Dal with Left & BJP support.
2️⃣ United Front (1996–98) – regional parties’ coalition.
3️⃣ NDA (1998 onwards) – BJP-led alliance.
4️⃣ UPA (2004 onwards) – Congress-led coalition.
✔️ Thus, post-1989 period witnessed multi-party coalitions replacing one-party dominance.
🔵 Question 4:
“In the new era of coalition politics, political parties are not aligning or realigning on the basis of ideology.” What arguments would you put forward to support or oppose this statement?
🟢 Answer:
✔️ Support:
Parties join alliances mainly for power-sharing, not ideological unity.
NDA & UPA include diverse ideological groups united for electoral advantage.
Regional parties support Centre for developmental benefits.
✔️ Oppose:
Some ideological consistency still exists (e.g. NDA around nationalism; UPA around secularism).
Coalitions create policy consensus (e.g. on economic reforms).
➡️ Conclusion: Alliances today are largely pragmatic, reflecting coalition politics where ideology takes a secondary role to governance and stability.
🔵 Question 5:
Trace the emergence of BJP as a significant force in post-Emergency politics.
🟢 Answer:
🔹 Origin from Bharatiya Jana Sangh (1951) → merged into Janata Party (1977).
🔹 After Janata split (1980) → BJP formed.
🔹 Initially moderate stance (“Gandhian socialism”).
🔹 Gained momentum through Ram Janmabhoomi movement (late 1980s–1990s).
🔹 Emerged as largest party in 1998 → led NDA government.
🔹 Consolidated with 2014 & 2019 majority victories.
✔️ BJP’s rise linked to religious mobilisation, coalition building, and strong leadership.
🔵 Question 6:
In spite of the decline of Congress dominance, the Congress party continues to influence politics in the country. Do you agree? Give reasons.
🟢 Answer:
✅ Yes, because:
1️⃣ Congress ideology of secularism and welfare still shapes policies.
2️⃣ UPA coalition (2004–2014) showed continued relevance.
3️⃣ Many regional parties evolved from Congress roots.
4️⃣ Congress remains a pan-India organisation with legacy networks.
➡️ Though weakened electorally, Congress continues to influence political discourse and alliances.
🔵 Question 7:
Many people think that a two-party system is required for successful democracy. Drawing from India’s experience of last 50 years, write an essay on what advantages the present party system in India has.
🟢 Answer:
India’s multi-party system offers:
🌈 Representation of diverse interests (region, caste, religion).
⚖️ Promotes coalition culture and consensus politics.
🗳️ Encourages competitive federalism.
🧭 Reflects India’s pluralism and complex society.
✔️ Though two-party systems give clarity, India’s diversity makes multi-party system more suitable for inclusiveness and balance.
🔵 Question 8:
Read the passage and answer the questions below:
Party politics in India has confronted numerous challenges. Not only has the Congress system destroyed itself, but the fragmentation of the Congress coalition has triggered a new emphasis on self-representation which raises questions about the party system and its capacity to accommodate diverse interests… An important test facing the polity is to evolve a party system or political parties that can effectively articulate and aggregate a variety of interests. — Zoya Hasan
🟢 (a) Write a short note on what the author calls challenges of the party system in the light of what you have read in this chapter.
✔️ Answer: The challenge is the fragmentation of parties and their inability to accommodate diverse interests. The decline of the Congress system led to coalitions where coordination and representation of varied groups became difficult. The key test is evolving parties that can balance diversity with unity.
🟢 (b) Given an example from this chapter of the lack of accommodation and aggregation mentioned in this passage.
✔️ Answer:
The split of Janata Party (1979) and later divisions within Congress and regional coalitions show inability to aggregate interests. Also, frequent coalition instability (1989–1999) indicates lack of accommodation.
🟢 (c) Why is it necessary for parties to accommodate and aggregate variety of interests?
✔️ Answer:
India is socially diverse; ignoring any group causes alienation.
Stable governance requires consensus.
Promotes national integration and democratic legitimacy.
➡️ Therefore, successful parties must represent all sections and build unity through inclusion.
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OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMS
🧭 Section A — Very Short Answer / Objective Type (1 mark each)
🔵 Question 1:
Which of the following events occurred first?
🟢 1. Implementation of Mandal Commission recommendations
🟡 2. Formation of Janata Dal
🔴 3. Supreme Court judgment on Ram Janmabhoomi
🟠 4. Assassination of Indira Gandhi
✔️ Answer: 4. Assassination of Indira Gandhi (1984)
🔵 Question 2:
Which of the following is NOT correctly matched?
🟢 1. Politics of Consensus — Agreement on Economic Policies
🟡 2. Caste-based Parties — Rise of OBCs
🔴 3. Personal Law & Gender Justice — Shah Bano Case
🟠 4. Growing Strength of Regional Parties — Single-party government
✔️ Answer: 4. Growing Strength of Regional Parties — Single-party government ❌ (It led to coalition governments)
🔵 Question 3:
Which among the following was a major issue in Indian politics after 1989?
🟢 1. Decline of regional parties
🟡 2. Emergence of coalition politics
🔴 3. One-party dominance
🟠 4. Absence of leadership
✔️ Answer: 2. Emergence of coalition politics
🔵 Question 4:
The Mandal Commission primarily dealt with which issue?
🟢 1. Women’s reservation
🟡 2. Economic reforms
🔴 3. Reservation for OBCs
🟠 4. Electoral reforms
✔️ Answer: 3. Reservation for OBCs
🔵 Question 5:
Which of the following governments was formed first after 1989?
🟢 1. NDA
🟡 2. UPA
🔴 3. Janata Dal
🟠 4. Congress (I) majority
✔️ Answer: 3. Janata Dal (1989)
🔵 Question 6:
Which of the following statements is true about Indian politics after 1989?
🟢 1. Congress continued dominance unchallenged
🟡 2. Era of coalition politics began
🔴 3. No regional parties emerged
🟠 4. BJP disappeared from national scene
✔️ Answer: 2. Era of coalition politics began
🧭 Section B — Short Answer Type (2 marks each)
🔵 Question 7:
State two main issues in Indian politics after 1989.
🟢 Answer:
1️⃣ Coalition Politics: No single party gained majority; alliances like NDA and UPA emerged.
2️⃣ Mandal Issue: Implementation of OBC reservations created social and political realignments.
🔵 Question 8:
What is meant by coalition politics?
🟢 Answer:
✔️ Coalition politics refers to a political arrangement where multiple parties join together to form a government, as no single party gains majority.
✔️ It began in India after 1989, leading to alliances like NDA and UPA.
🔵 Question 9:
Mention two significant developments in Indian politics after 1989.
🟢 Answer:
1️⃣ Rise of regional parties with strong local bases.
2️⃣ Emergence of coalition governments at the Centre replacing Congress dominance.
🔵 Question 10:
What is the significance of the Ram Janmabhoomi movement in Indian politics?
🟢 Answer:
✔️ It mobilized large-scale support for BJP and reshaped the political discourse around religion and identity.
✔️ It played a key role in increasing BJP’s popularity in the 1990s.
🔵 Question 11:
What was the Shah Bano case about?
🟢 Answer:
✔️ A 1985 Supreme Court judgment granting maintenance to a divorced Muslim woman, Shah Bano.
✔️ It triggered debate over personal law, secularism, and gender justice in India.
🔵 Question 12:
What is the Mandal Commission and what was its recommendation?
🟢 Answer:
✔️ The Mandal Commission (1979) was appointed to identify socially and educationally backward classes.
✔️ It recommended 27% reservation for OBCs in government jobs and education.
🔵 Question 13:
Explain the rise of regional parties after 1989.
🟢 Answer:
✔️ Regional aspirations gained voice; states like Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh saw emergence of strong regional parties.
✔️ They began to play key roles in national coalition governments.
🔵 Question 14:
What do you understand by Politics of Consensus?
🟢 Answer:
✔️ It refers to the era (1950–70s) when all major parties broadly agreed on economic policies like mixed economy, non-alignment, and welfare state.
✔️ It ended with the rise of competing ideologies in the 1980s–90s.
🔵 Question 15:
Name two coalition governments formed at the Centre after 1989.
🟢 Answer:
1️⃣ NDA (National Democratic Alliance) — led by BJP.
2️⃣ UPA (United Progressive Alliance) — led by Congress.
🔵 Question 16:
Why is 1989 considered a turning point in Indian politics?
🟢 Answer:
✔️ It ended one-party dominance of Congress.
✔️ Marked beginning of coalition era, Mandal politics, and rise of BJP.
🔵 Question 17:
Mention any two advantages of coalition politics.
🟢 Answer:
1️⃣ Encourages power-sharing and consensus building.
2️⃣ Represents diverse regional and social interests in governance.
🔵 Question 18:
Mention any two challenges of coalition politics.
🟢 Answer:
1️⃣ Instability due to conflicting interests among partners.
2️⃣ Policy paralysis when consensus is hard to reach.
🧭 Section C — Short Answer Type-II (3 marks each)
🔵 Question 19:
Trace the emergence of BJP as a significant force in post-Emergency politics.
🟢 Answer:
1️⃣ BJP emerged from Janata Party (1977) and was formed in 1980 with the philosophy of Integral Humanism.
2️⃣ It gained momentum through the Ram Janmabhoomi movement in the late 1980s.
3️⃣ By 1990s, BJP became a national party leading coalition governments like NDA (1998–2004, 2014 onwards).
🔵 Question 20:
Explain the Mandal Commission’s significance in Indian politics.
🟢 Answer:
1️⃣ Recommended 27% reservation for OBCs in government jobs.
2️⃣ Implemented in 1990 by V.P. Singh government, causing nationwide protests and support.
3️⃣ It marked the rise of caste-based politics and strengthened backward caste representation.
🔵 Question 21:
“In the new era of coalition politics, ideology is no longer the primary basis.” Explain.
🟢 Answer:
✔️ After 1989, parties joined alliances for power-sharing, not ideology.
✔️ NDA, UPA included parties with differing views but common governance goals.
✔️ Pragmatism replaced ideology; stability became the priority.
🔵 Question 22:
State three issues that influenced Indian politics after 1989.
🟢 Answer:
1️⃣ Coalition politics replacing one-party dominance.
2️⃣ Mandal issue — rise of caste-based mobilization.
3️⃣ Ram Janmabhoomi movement — rise of identity politics and BJP.
🔵 Question 23:
What are the advantages of the coalition era in Indian politics?
🟢 Answer:
1️⃣ Greater representation of regional and social groups.
2️⃣ Encouraged consensus-building in policymaking.
3️⃣ Checked concentration of power in one party.
🔵 Question 24 (Internal Choice):
(a) What is meant by Politics of Consensus?
🟢 Answer:
✔️ Era (1950s–70s) where all major parties agreed on key policies like mixed economy, non-alignment, and democracy.
OR
(b) What is meant by Politics of Competition?
🟢 Answer:
✔️ Post-1970s phase where parties competed with distinct ideologies, leading to fragmented mandates and alliances.
🔵 Question 25:
Discuss the impact of regional parties on national politics.
🟢 Answer:
1️⃣ Increased federal character in governance.
2️⃣ Played kingmaker role in coalition governments.
3️⃣ Highlighted regional issues in national agenda.
🔵 Question 26:
Describe two features of the UPA government formed in 2004.
🟢 Answer:
1️⃣ Coalition led by Indian National Congress.
2️⃣ Adopted Common Minimum Programme focusing on inclusive growth and secularism.
🔵 Question 27:
Write three points about NDA (1998–2004) government.
🟢 Answer:
1️⃣ Led by BJP under Atal Bihari Vajpayee.
2️⃣ Promoted economic reforms and infrastructure projects.
3️⃣ Emphasized coalition stability with diverse partners.
🔵 Question 28:
What were the main features of Indian party system after 1989?
🟢 Answer:
1️⃣ Coalition governments became norm.
2️⃣ Regional parties gained influence.
3️⃣ Decline of Congress dominance and rise of BJP.
🧭 Section D — Long Answer Type (4 marks each)
🔵 Question 29:
Write an essay on advantages of the present party system in India.
🟢 Answer:
1️⃣ Promotes representation of diverse groups (regional, caste, religious).
2️⃣ Encourages coalition governments ensuring collective decision-making.
3️⃣ Prevents dictatorship of one party; ensures checks and balances.
4️⃣ Reflects vibrant democracy adapting to social changes.
🔵 Question 30:
Read the passage and answer:
“Party politics in India has confronted numerous challenges… evolve a party system that can articulate and aggregate a variety of interests.”
(a) What are the challenges of the party system?
🟢 Answer:
✔️ Fragmentation of parties, lack of unity, and difficulty in accommodating diverse demands.
(b) Give an example of lack of accommodation.
🟢 Answer:
✔️ Split of Congress (1969, 1978) or internal conflicts within Janata Party (1979).
(c) Why must parties accommodate variety of interests?
🟢 Answer:
✔️ India’s diverse society needs inclusive policies; helps maintain stability and democratic consensus.
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ONE PAGE REVISION SHEET
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MIND MAPS
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