Class 11 : Geography (In English) – Lesson 5. Geomorphic Processes
EXPLANATION & SUMMARY
📘 1. Detailed Explanation
🌍 Introduction to Geomorphic Processes
🌏 The Earth’s surface is not static — it is a dynamic and constantly evolving landscape shaped by a variety of natural forces. These forces, known as geomorphic processes, act on the Earth’s crust to create, modify, and destroy landforms over time. Mountains rise, valleys deepen, rivers carve channels, glaciers sculpt landscapes, and wind shapes deserts — all due to these powerful processes.
📖 The word geomorphology comes from the Greek words “geo” (Earth), “morph” (form), and “logos” (study). Geomorphic processes, therefore, are the natural mechanisms that transform the Earth’s surface, operating continuously from the time the planet formed until today.
🌎 Understanding these processes is crucial for geography, as they explain the origin of landforms, natural hazards, soil formation, and the distribution of landscapes.
🪐 Types of Geomorphic Processes
Geomorphic processes are broadly classified based on their origin and energy source into two main categories:
🌋 Endogenic Processes – Internal forces originating within the Earth
🌦️ Exogenic Processes – External forces acting on the Earth’s surface
🌋 I. Endogenic Processes (Internal Forces)
🪨 Endogenic processes are driven by energy from within the Earth, primarily due to radioactive decay, gravitational pressure, and residual heat from the planet’s formation. They are responsible for building up the Earth’s surface and creating large-scale landforms like mountains, plateaus, and ocean basins.
🌋 1. Diastrophism — Crustal Deformation
Diastrophism refers to all large-scale movements of the Earth’s crust caused by internal forces. It includes both vertical and horizontal movements that shape the surface.
📍 Types of Diastrophic Movements:
🏔️ Epeirogenic Movements (Continental Building):
Slow, vertical, widespread uplifts or subsidences.
Example: Uplift of the Deccan Plateau.
🌄 Orogenic Movements (Mountain Building):
Intense horizontal movements leading to folding and faulting.
Example: Formation of the Himalayas due to collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates.
🪨 Faulting:
Cracking and displacement of crust due to tectonic stress.
Example: Narmada Rift Valley.
🏞️ Folding:
Bending of rock layers under compressive forces.
Example: Fold mountains like the Alps and Rockies.
🌋 2. Volcanism
🌋 Volcanism is the process through which molten magma, gases, and ash escape from the Earth’s interior onto the surface. It plays a major role in forming new landforms and modifying existing ones.
📍 Types of Volcanic Features:
🪨 Extrusive Landforms: Volcanoes, lava plateaus, basalt plains.
🌋 Intrusive Landforms: Batholiths, sills, dykes formed when magma solidifies below the surface.
🌍 Examples: Mount Fuji (Japan), Deccan Traps (India).
🌋 3. Earthquakes
🌏 Earthquakes are sudden releases of energy from the Earth’s crust that cause ground shaking. They result from the movement of tectonic plates and are often associated with faulting or volcanic activity.
📍 Impacts: Creation of rift valleys, uplift of land, and changes in drainage patterns.
🌦️ II. Exogenic Processes (External Forces)
🌍 Exogenic processes are caused by external forces acting on the Earth’s surface, mainly solar energy, gravity, wind, water, glaciers, and chemical interactions. These processes wear down the elevated landforms created by endogenic forces and deposit sediments elsewhere, leading to landscape evolution.
🪨 1. Weathering — Breakdown of Rocks
🌦️ Weathering is the disintegration and decomposition of rocks in situ (without movement). It is the first step in landscape formation and soil development.
📍 Types of Weathering:
🌡️ Physical (Mechanical) Weathering:
Caused by temperature changes, frost action, or pressure release.
Example: Exfoliation in deserts, frost wedging in cold regions.
💧 Chemical Weathering:
Involves chemical reactions like oxidation, carbonation, and hydrolysis.
Example: Limestone dissolution forming karst landscapes.
🌿 Biological Weathering:
Caused by plants, animals, and microorganisms.
Example: Root wedging, organic acids.
📊 Importance: Weathering prepares rocks for erosion, forms soil, and releases minerals.
🌊 2. Mass Wasting — Movement of Weathered Material
Mass wasting refers to the downslope movement of weathered rock debris under the influence of gravity. It plays a key role in shaping slopes and valleys.
📍 Types of Mass Wasting:
🪨 Slow Movements:
Creep: Gradual movement of soil and rock.
Solifluction: Movement of water-saturated soil in cold regions.
🌋 Rapid Movements:
Landslides: Sudden sliding of rock or debris.
Rockfalls: Free fall of rocks from steep slopes.
📊 Impact: Alters slope profiles and contributes material to rivers and valleys.
🌊 3. Erosion — Wearing Away of the Earth’s Surface
🌊 Erosion is the process of removing weathered material from one location and transporting it elsewhere through agents like water, wind, ice, and waves.
📍 Major Erosional Agents:
💦 Running Water (Rivers):
Forms valleys, gorges, waterfalls.
Example: Grand Canyon by Colorado River.
🌬️ Wind (Aeolian):
Forms dunes, loess deposits, mushroom rocks.
Example: Sahara Desert landforms.
❄️ Glaciers:
Carve U-shaped valleys, cirques, moraines.
Example: Fjords in Norway.
🌊 Waves:
Form sea cliffs, arches, stacks.
Example: Coastal erosion in Bay of Bengal.
📊 Significance: Erosion sculpts landscapes and redistributes sediments.
🏞️ 4. Transportation and Deposition
After erosion, material is transported by rivers, glaciers, wind, or waves and eventually deposited when the energy of the transporting medium decreases.
📍 Examples:
🌊 Rivers: Alluvial plains, deltas.
❄️ Glaciers: Moraines, drumlins.
🌬️ Wind: Sand dunes, loess plains.
🌊 Waves: Beaches, spits, bars.
Deposition creates new landforms and enriches soils, influencing agriculture and settlement.
🌐 Endogenic vs Exogenic: A Comparative View
🌋 Endogenic Processes
🌦️ Exogenic Processes
🔎 Feature
Source of Energy
Internal (radioactive decay, gravity)
External (solar energy, gravity)
Nature
Constructive (builds landforms)
Destructive (wears down landforms)
Examples
Volcanism, Earthquakes, Folding
Weathering, Erosion, Mass Wasting
Landforms
Mountains, Plateaus, Rift Valleys
Valleys, Plains, Dunes, Beaches
🪐 Geomorphic Agents and Their Work
Geomorphic agents are natural forces that perform erosion, transportation, and deposition. Each agent shapes landforms differently:
💦 Rivers
🏞️ Erosional Landforms: V-shaped valleys, gorges, waterfalls.
🌊 Depositional Landforms: Alluvial fans, deltas, floodplains.
🌬️ Wind
🏜️ Erosional Landforms: Deflation hollows, mushroom rocks.
🏖️ Depositional Landforms: Sand dunes, loess deposits.
❄️ Glaciers
🏔️ Erosional Landforms: Cirques, U-shaped valleys, horns.
🪨 Depositional Landforms: Moraines, eskers, drumlins.
🌊 Sea Waves
🌅 Erosional Landforms: Cliffs, caves, arches, stacks.
🏖️ Depositional Landforms: Beaches, spits, bars.
🌋 Groundwater
🪨 Erosional Landforms: Sinkholes, caves.
🏞️ Depositional Landforms: Stalactites, stalagmites.
🏔️ Geomorphic Cycle of Erosion — Davisian Model
American geographer William Morris Davis proposed the Geographical Cycle of Erosion, describing the stages of landscape evolution caused by geomorphic processes:
🌱 Youth: Rapid erosion, steep slopes, V-shaped valleys.
🌿 Maturity: Gentle slopes, floodplains, meanders.
🌾 Old Age: Broad valleys, peneplains.
Although criticized for oversimplification, this model remains fundamental in geomorphology.
🌎 Interrelationship Between Endogenic and Exogenic Forces
🌋 Endogenic forces build the Earth’s relief — mountains, plateaus, ridges. 🌦️ Exogenic forces modify and sculpt this relief — cutting valleys, eroding peaks, depositing sediments. Their continuous interaction maintains Earth’s dynamic equilibrium.
Example:
Uplift of Himalayas (endogenic) → Glacial erosion and river valley formation (exogenic).
Volcanic lava plateau (endogenic) → Weathering and soil formation (exogenic).
🌋 Significance of Geomorphic Processes
Geomorphic processes are crucial for shaping Earth’s environment and human life:
🏔️ Landform Development: Creation of diverse landscapes — mountains, plains, deserts.
🌊 Soil Formation: Weathering and erosion contribute to fertile soils.
🪨 Resource Distribution: Influence mineral, water, and soil resources.
🌱 Ecological Balance: Create habitats for diverse flora and fauna.
🏙️ Human Settlement: Determine location of cities, agriculture, and infrastructure.
⚠️ Natural Hazards: Understanding processes helps mitigate landslides, floods, and erosion.
📚 2. Summary (~300 Words)
Geomorphic processes are natural forces that shape, modify, and transform the Earth’s surface. They are classified as endogenic (internal) and exogenic (external) based on their origin. Endogenic processes, driven by Earth’s internal heat and pressure, include diastrophism (folding, faulting), volcanism, and earthquakes. They are constructive, creating major landforms like mountains and plateaus.
Exogenic processes, powered by solar energy and gravity, include weathering, mass wasting, erosion, transportation, and deposition. These are destructive, breaking down and reshaping landforms. Agents such as rivers, wind, glaciers, waves, and groundwater perform these processes, producing a variety of erosional and depositional features.
Weathering breaks rocks into smaller particles, mass wasting moves material downslope, and erosion transports and deposits sediments. Together, they sculpt valleys, plains, deltas, sand dunes, and coastal features. Geomorphic cycles describe how landscapes evolve through youth, maturity, and old age.
The continuous interaction between endogenic uplift and exogenic denudation maintains the dynamic nature of Earth’s surface. These processes are vital for landform creation, soil development, resource distribution, ecological balance, and human settlement. Understanding them helps manage natural hazards and plan sustainable land use.
⚡ 3. Quick Recap (~100 Words)
Geomorphic processes shape Earth’s surface through internal and external forces. Endogenic processes like folding, faulting, volcanism, and earthquakes build landforms, while exogenic processes like weathering, mass wasting, erosion, and deposition modify them. Agents such as water, wind, glaciers, and waves sculpt valleys, plains, mountains, dunes, and coasts. These processes are interlinked — uplift creates relief, and erosion wears it down. Over time, landscapes evolve through stages from youth to maturity and old age. Geomorphic processes are essential for landform formation, soil development, and resource distribution and influence ecosystems and human activities.
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QUESTIONS FROM TEXTBOOK
📘 Questions and Answers (Questions and Answers Together)
✨ 1. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
🔴 Q1: Which one of the following processes is a gradational process?
🟢 (a) Deposition
🔵 (b) Diastrophism
🟡 (c) Volcanism
🟣 (d) Erosion
✅ Answer: 🔴 (a) Deposition
🔵 Q2: Which one of the following materials is affected by hydration process?
🟢 (a) Granite
🔵 (b) Clay
🟡 (c) Quartz
🟣 (d) Salts
✅ Answer: 🔵 (b) Clay
🟡 Q3: Debris avalanche can be included in the category of:
🔴 (a) Landslides
🔵 (b) Slow flow mass movements
🟡 (c) Rapid flow mass movements
🟣 (d) Subsidence
✅ Answer: 🟡 (c) Rapid flow mass movements
✏️ 2. Short Answer Questions (About 30 Words Each)
🔴 Q1: It is weathering that is responsible for biodiversity on the earth. How?
🌱 Answer: Weathering breaks down rocks into minerals and soil, creating a fertile medium for plant growth. This supports ecosystems and diverse habitats, sustaining biodiversity on Earth.
🔵 Q2: What are mass movements that are real, rapid, and perceptible? List.
🌱 Answer: Rapid and perceptible mass movements are sudden downslope movements of soil and rock due to gravity. Examples include landslides, rockfalls, debris avalanches, and mudflows.
🟡 Q3: What are the various mobile and mighty exogenic geomorphic agents, and what is the prime job they perform?
🌱 Answer: Major exogenic agents include running water, wind, glaciers, waves, and groundwater. Their primary role is erosion, transportation, and deposition of materials, shaping landforms.
🟣 Q4: Is weathering essential as a pre-requisite in the formation of soils? Why?
🌱 Answer: Yes, weathering disintegrates rocks into fine particles, releasing minerals that form soil. It provides the base materials and conditions necessary for soil development.
📜 3. Long Answer Questions (About 150 Words Each)
🔴 Q1: “Our earth is a playfield for two opposing groups of geomorphic processes.” Discuss.
🌱 Answer: Geomorphic processes are classified into endogenic (internal) and exogenic (external) forces. Endogenic forces like volcanism, diastrophism, and earthquakes build landforms by uplifting and creating new structures. Exogenic forces like weathering, erosion, and mass wasting wear down and shape these structures through external factors like water, wind, and ice. Together, these opposing forces — one constructive, the other destructive — maintain a dynamic balance on Earth’s surface. This interplay creates diverse landforms such as mountains, valleys, plains, and plateaus. Without this balance, the Earth would either remain rugged and mountainous or become flat and featureless. Thus, the Earth’s surface is continuously reshaped by the competition between these constructive and destructive forces.
🔵 Q2: Exogenic geomorphic processes derive their ultimate energy from the sun’s heat. Explain.
🌱 Answer: Exogenic processes like weathering, erosion, transportation, and deposition rely on external energy, primarily from the sun. Solar energy drives the hydrological cycle, causing rainfall and river flow, which contribute to erosion. It also creates wind and ocean currents, which shape landscapes. Moreover, temperature variations due to solar heating cause physical weathering. Sunlight also powers photosynthesis, influencing biological weathering. Therefore, without solar energy, exogenic agents would cease to function effectively, and the Earth’s surface would not experience continuous sculpting and reshaping. Solar energy is thus the ultimate driver behind the external forces shaping Earth’s surface.
🟡 Q3: Are physical and chemical weathering processes independent of each other? If not, why? Explain with examples.
🌱 Answer: Physical and chemical weathering processes are closely interconnected. Physical weathering breaks rocks into smaller pieces, increasing their surface area and making them more susceptible to chemical reactions. For example, freeze-thaw action fractures rocks, allowing water to penetrate and chemically react with minerals. Similarly, chemical weathering can weaken rock structures, making them more vulnerable to physical disintegration. An example is oxidation, which weakens iron-rich rocks, causing them to crumble physically. Therefore, both processes often work together, enhancing the rate of rock breakdown and contributing to soil formation.
🟣 Q4: How do you distinguish between the process of soil formation and soil-forming factors? What is the role of climate and biological activity as two important control factors in the formation of soils?
🌱 Answer: Soil formation is the process by which rocks are weathered and transformed into soil through physical, chemical, and biological activities. Soil-forming factors are the agents influencing this process. Climate plays a crucial role by determining the intensity of weathering through temperature and precipitation. High rainfall and warmth accelerate chemical weathering, producing deep, fertile soils. Biological activity, such as the decomposition of organic matter by plants, animals, and microorganisms, enriches soil fertility and structure. Together, these factors regulate soil characteristics, texture, composition, and fertility, shaping the ecosystem.
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OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMS
🔵 Question 1: Which of the following is the primary energy source driving geomorphic processes on Earth?
🟢 1️⃣ Solar energy
🔴 2️⃣ Tidal energy
🟡 3️⃣ Nuclear energy
🔴 4️⃣ Geothermal energy
✔️ Answer: Solar energy
🟡 Question 2: Endogenic forces originate from:
🟢 1️⃣ Inside the Earth
🔴 2️⃣ Sun’s radiation
🟡 3️⃣ Ocean currents
🔴 4️⃣ Glacial action
✔️ Answer: Inside the Earth
🔴 Question 3: Which of the following is an example of an exogenic process?
🟢 1️⃣ Earthquake
🔴 2️⃣ Volcanic eruption
🟡 3️⃣ Weathering
🔴 4️⃣ Folding
✔️ Answer: Weathering
🟢 Question 4: The wearing down of the Earth’s surface by external agents is called:
🟢 1️⃣ Denudation
🔴 2️⃣ Orogeny
🟡 3️⃣ Diastrophism
🔴 4️⃣ Isostasy
✔️ Answer: Denudation
🔵 Question 5: Sudden movements caused by endogenic forces include:
🟢 1️⃣ Folding and faulting
🔴 2️⃣ Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes
🟡 3️⃣ Weathering and mass wasting
🔴 4️⃣ Soil formation
✔️ Answer: Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes
🟡 Question 6: The process of breaking down rocks into smaller particles without changing their composition is known as:
🟢 1️⃣ Chemical weathering
🔴 2️⃣ Mechanical weathering
🟡 3️⃣ Biological weathering
🔴 4️⃣ Denudation
✔️ Answer: Mechanical weathering
🔴 Question 7: Which of the following is a result of biological weathering?
🟢 1️⃣ Root penetration into rocks
🔴 2️⃣ Frost action
🟡 3️⃣ Oxidation
🔴 4️⃣ Carbonation
✔️ Answer: Root penetration into rocks
🟢 Question 8: Which of the following processes is directly involved in mass wasting?
🟢 1️⃣ Gravity
🔴 2️⃣ Wind
🟡 3️⃣ Ice
🔴 4️⃣ Ocean waves
✔️ Answer: Gravity
🔵 Question 9: The bending of rock layers due to compressional forces is called:
🟢 1️⃣ Faulting
🔴 2️⃣ Folding
🟡 3️⃣ Volcanism
🔴 4️⃣ Denudation
✔️ Answer: Folding
🟡 Question 10: Which of the following is not a type of weathering?
🟢 1️⃣ Biological
🔴 2️⃣ Physical
🟡 3️⃣ Chemical
🔴 4️⃣ Plate tectonics
✔️ Answer: Plate tectonics
🔴 Question 11: The slow movement of soil and rock material down a slope under gravity is called:
🟢 1️⃣ Creep
🔴 2️⃣ Landslide
🟡 3️⃣ Avalanche
🔴 4️⃣ Earthflow
✔️ Answer: Creep
🟢 Question 12: The movement of lithospheric plates is caused mainly by:
🟢 1️⃣ Mantle convection currents
🔴 2️⃣ Gravity alone
🟡 3️⃣ Solar radiation
🔴 4️⃣ Wind action
✔️ Answer: Mantle convection currents
🧭 Section B — Short Answer Questions (15–20 words each)
🔵 Question 13: What are geomorphic processes?
🟢 Answer: Geomorphic processes are natural forces that shape and modify the Earth’s surface through weathering, erosion, and deposition.
🟡 Question 14: Define endogenic forces.
🟢 Answer: Endogenic forces originate inside the Earth and include volcanic activity, earthquakes, folding, and faulting.
🔴 Question 15: What is weathering?
🟢 Answer: Weathering is the breakdown of rocks into smaller particles by physical, chemical, or biological processes in situ.
🟢 Question 16: Mention two examples of exogenic forces.
🟢 Answer: Wind erosion and glacial movement are two major examples of exogenic forces shaping the Earth’s surface.
🔵 Question 17: What is mass wasting?
🟢 Answer: Mass wasting is the downslope movement of rock and soil under gravity without the involvement of a transporting medium.
🟡 Question 18: Define denudation.
🟢 Answer: Denudation is the combined action of weathering, mass wasting, erosion, and transportation that lowers Earth’s surface.
🔴 Question 19: What is chemical weathering?
🟢 Answer: Chemical weathering is the decomposition of rocks through chemical reactions like oxidation, hydration, and carbonation.
🟢 Question 20: What are sudden endogenic movements?
🟢 Answer: Sudden endogenic movements are rapid Earth movements like earthquakes and volcanic eruptions caused by tectonic forces.
🌍 Section C — Medium Answer Questions (≈60 words each)
🔵 Question 21: Differentiate between endogenic and exogenic processes.
🟢 Answer: Endogenic processes originate inside the Earth and build landforms, e.g., volcanism and earthquakes. They include sudden (earthquakes) and slow (folding) movements. Exogenic processes occur on the surface, driven by external forces like wind, water, or ice, and shape or wear down landforms through weathering, erosion, and mass wasting. Both interact to form Earth’s surface features.
🟡 Question 22: Explain mechanical weathering with examples.
🟢 Answer: Mechanical weathering involves the physical breakdown of rocks without altering their composition. Key types include freeze-thaw action (water freezes in cracks, expanding and breaking rock), exfoliation (peeling of outer rock layers due to temperature changes), and abrasion (rock particles wearing down surfaces). It is common in arid and cold regions where temperature fluctuations are significant.
🔴 Question 23: Describe different types of chemical weathering.
🟢 Answer: Chemical weathering alters the mineral composition of rocks. Major types include:
Oxidation: Minerals react with oxygen, forming oxides.
Carbonation: Carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid, dissolving rocks like limestone.
Hydration: Minerals absorb water, expanding and weakening rocks.
Solution: Minerals dissolve in water. These processes are most active in warm, moist climates.
🟢 Question 24: What is mass wasting? Describe its main types.
🟢 Answer: Mass wasting is the downward movement of rock and soil under gravity. Types include:
Creep: Slow, imperceptible movement.
Landslides: Rapid movement of large rock masses.
Earthflow and Mudflow: Movement of saturated soil and debris.
Rockfall: Sudden free fall of rock fragments.
It occurs on slopes and plays a key role in shaping landscapes.
🔵 Question 25: Explain the role of gravity in geomorphic processes.
🟢 Answer: Gravity is the primary driving force behind many geomorphic processes. It pulls weathered material downslope (mass wasting) and influences erosion, transportation, and deposition by water, wind, and glaciers. It also contributes to tectonic movements, folding, and faulting. Without gravity, geomorphic agents could not move materials, and landforms would not evolve as they do.
🟡 Question 26: Discuss the significance of weathering in landform development.
🟢 Answer: Weathering weakens and breaks down rocks, making them more susceptible to erosion and transportation. It creates soil, contributes to the formation of caves, karst topography, and exfoliation domes. Chemical weathering alters minerals, forming new surfaces for plant growth. By preparing materials for removal, weathering is the first step in shaping and transforming landscapes over time.
🏞️ Section D — Detailed Answer Questions (≈150 words each)
🔴 Question 27: Explain the types of endogenic processes and their effects on landforms.
🟢 Answer: Endogenic processes originate within the Earth and are divided into two types:
Sudden movements: These include earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, which occur abruptly and reshape Earth’s surface. Earthquakes can uplift or sink land, while volcanic eruptions create new landforms like volcanic cones, plateaus, and islands.
Diastrophic movements: These are slow and include folding, faulting, and continental drift. Folding produces mountain ranges like the Himalayas, while faulting forms rift valleys and block mountains.
Endogenic forces build new landforms, elevate mountains, create ocean basins, and influence Earth’s crustal structure. They also trigger secondary processes such as mass wasting and erosion. Overall, endogenic processes are constructive, continuously reshaping and renewing the planet’s surface, providing the foundation upon which exogenic forces act.
🟢 Question 28: Describe the major types of exogenic processes and their roles in shaping Earth’s surface.
🟢 Answer: Exogenic processes originate from external forces like wind, water, ice, and gravity. They include:
Weathering: Breaks down rocks into smaller particles.
Mass Wasting: Moves weathered material downslope under gravity.
Erosion: Removes surface materials through running water, glaciers, wind, and waves.
Transportation and Deposition: Carried materials are deposited, forming plains, deltas, and sand dunes.
These processes wear down elevated features, fill basins, and sculpt landscapes into valleys, canyons, and coastal landforms. Exogenic forces are destructive, reducing relief and leveling the Earth’s surface over time. Together with endogenic forces, they maintain Earth’s dynamic equilibrium, creating diverse and evolving landforms.
🔵 Question 29: Discuss the importance of mass wasting in geomorphology.
🟢 Answer: Mass wasting plays a crucial role in shaping Earth’s landscapes. It moves weathered material from higher to lower elevations, preparing surfaces for erosion and deposition. Landslides, debris flows, and rockfalls rapidly alter terrain, while creep and earthflows slowly modify slopes. Mass wasting contributes to soil formation, sediment supply to rivers, and the development of valleys and basins. It also influences human activities, posing risks to settlements, infrastructure, and agriculture. Studying mass wasting helps in slope management, hazard mitigation, and planning safe land use. By connecting weathering and erosion, mass wasting serves as a vital link in geomorphic cycles, balancing elevation and sediment transfer across Earth’s surface.
🟡 Question 30: Explain the concept of denudation and its components.
🟢 Answer: Denudation refers to the overall process of wearing down and lowering Earth’s surface through external agents. It includes four main components:
Weathering: Disintegration of rocks in situ.
Mass Wasting: Downslope movement of weathered material under gravity.
Erosion: Removal and transport of surface materials by water, wind, ice, or waves.
Transportation and Deposition: Movement and accumulation of eroded materials in new locations.
Denudation reduces elevation, levels landforms, and redistributes sediments, forming plains, deltas, and alluvial fans. It influences landscape evolution, soil formation, and sediment cycles. By counteracting uplift from endogenic processes, denudation maintains Earth’s surface balance and contributes to the continuous reshaping of terrestrial features over geological time.
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ONE PAGE REVISION SHEET
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MIND MAPS
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