Class 11 : Geography (In English) – Lesson 11. World Climate and Climate Change
EXPLANATION & SUMMARY
📘 1. Detailed Explanation
🌦️ Introduction
🌏 Climate is one of the most fundamental controls of life and landscapes on Earth. It shapes ecosystems, influences agriculture, determines settlement patterns, and governs the distribution of plants, animals, and human societies. Climate refers to the long-term average of weather conditions — such as temperature, precipitation, humidity, and wind — in a particular region, typically measured over 30 years or more.
However, Earth’s climate is not static. It has changed dramatically throughout geological history — from ice ages to warm periods — and continues to change today. These changes, collectively known as climate change, are among the most pressing global challenges of the 21st century, with profound impacts on natural systems, human societies, and the global economy.
🌍 Weather vs. Climate
📊 Weather is the short-term state of the atmosphere — temperature, humidity, rainfall, cloudiness, and wind — over hours or days.
📊 Climate is the long-term pattern of weather conditions averaged over decades.
🌦️ Example: A rainy day in Delhi is weather, while Delhi’s hot, dry summers and cool winters are part of its climate.
🌞 Elements of Climate
Climate is defined by the long-term behavior of atmospheric elements:
🌡️ Temperature – Determines heat distribution.
🌧️ Precipitation – Controls vegetation and water resources.
💨 Wind – Influences pressure systems and moisture transport.
☁️ Humidity – Affects precipitation and thermal comfort.
🌤️ Pressure – Drives circulation patterns and weather systems.
🪐 Factors Controlling World Climate
The Earth’s climate system is influenced by several natural and geographical factors:
🌍 Latitude: Determines solar energy received — equatorial regions are hotter, poles are colder.
🏔️ Altitude: Temperature decreases with elevation (~6.5°C per 1000 m).
🌊 Distance from Sea: Coastal regions have moderate (maritime) climates; interiors experience extremes (continental climates).
🌬️ Ocean Currents: Warm currents warm nearby regions, cold currents cool them.
🌦️ Winds and Pressure Systems: Distribute heat and moisture globally.
🏜️ Topography: Mountains block winds, influence rainfall (rain shadow effect).
☀️ Solar Radiation: Amount and angle of insolation affect climate zones.
🌐 Major Climate Zones of the World
The Earth’s surface is divided into major climatic zones based on temperature and precipitation. German climatologist Wladimir Köppen developed the most widely used classification, which combines temperature, rainfall, and vegetation.
☀️ I. Tropical Climates (A)
🌴 Location: 0°–25° latitude
📊 Characteristics: High temperatures year-round (~25–30°C), heavy rainfall.
🌦️ Equatorial Climate: Hot, humid, daily convectional rain (e.g., Amazon, Congo).
🌴 Tropical Monsoon Climate: Seasonal rainfall from monsoons (e.g., India, SE Asia).
🌵 Tropical Savannah: Distinct wet and dry seasons, grassland vegetation (e.g., East Africa, Brazil).
🌤️ II. Dry Climates (B)
🏜️ Location: 15°–35° latitude
📊 Characteristics: Very low rainfall (<250 mm/year), large diurnal temperature range.
🌵 Desert Climate: Extremely arid, sparse vegetation (e.g., Sahara, Atacama).
🌾 Steppe Climate: Semi-arid, short grasses, transitional zones (e.g., Central Asia, Great Plains).
🌦️ III. Temperate Climates (C)
🌍 Location: 30°–45° latitude
📊 Characteristics: Moderate temperature, distinct seasons.
🌦️ Mediterranean: Dry summers, wet winters (e.g., Italy, California).
🌦️ Humid Subtropical: Hot, humid summers, mild winters (e.g., SE USA, China).
🌧️ Marine West Coast: Mild, wet climate year-round (e.g., UK, New Zealand).
❄️ IV. Continental Climates (D)
🌡️ Location: 40°–60° latitude
📊 Characteristics: Large temperature variation, moderate rainfall.
🌾 Humid Continental: Warm summers, cold winters (e.g., NE USA, Russia).
🌨️ Subarctic: Short cool summers, long cold winters (e.g., Canada, Siberia).
🧊 V. Polar Climates (E)
🌨️ Location: 60°–90° latitude
📊 Characteristics: Very cold, low precipitation, permafrost.
❄️ Tundra: Short growing season, mosses and lichens (e.g., Arctic coastlines).
🧊 Ice Cap: Permanent ice and snow (e.g., Antarctica, Greenland).
🏔️ VI. Highland Climate (H)
📍 Found in mountainous regions at various latitudes.
📊 Characteristics: Decrease in temperature with altitude, variable precipitation.
🌎 Climate Change: Historical Perspective
🌐 Earth’s climate has always been dynamic, undergoing natural fluctuations over millions of years. These changes are caused by:
🌞 Solar Variability: Changes in solar output affect Earth’s temperature.
🪐 Orbital Changes (Milankovitch Cycles): Variations in Earth’s orbit and tilt affect glacial cycles.
🌋 Volcanic Eruptions: Release aerosols that block sunlight, cooling the Earth.
🌍 Tectonic Activity: Shifts in continents alter ocean circulation and climate patterns.
📊 Examples of Past Climate Events:
❄️ Ice Ages (Pleistocene): Repeated glaciations over the last 2.6 million years.
🌡️ Medieval Warm Period (900–1300 CE): Slightly warmer temperatures in Europe.
🧊 Little Ice Age (1300–1850 CE): Cooler global temperatures.
🌡️ Modern Climate Change — Anthropogenic Causes
Since the Industrial Revolution (c. 1750), human activities have dramatically increased greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations, causing rapid climate change.
📍 Major Human Causes:
🏭 Burning of Fossil Fuels: Releases CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O.
🌳 Deforestation: Reduces CO₂ absorption, increases atmospheric carbon.
🏙️ Urbanization: Alters land surfaces and heat absorption.
🐄 Agriculture and Livestock: Methane emissions from rice paddies and cattle.
🏭 Industrial Processes: Release greenhouse gases and pollutants.
🌡️ Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming
🌍 The greenhouse effect is a natural process where gases like carbon dioxide, methane, water vapour, and ozone trap heat in the atmosphere, keeping Earth’s temperature suitable for life (~15°C).
However, enhanced greenhouse effect due to human activity has led to global warming — a sustained rise in Earth’s average temperature.
📊 Key Greenhouse Gases:
CO₂ – ~76% of emissions
CH₄ – ~16%
N₂O – ~6%
F-gases – ~2%
🌡️ Consequences of Global Warming:
Rising global temperatures (~1.2°C since pre-industrial times)
Melting glaciers and polar ice → rising sea levels
More frequent and intense heatwaves, droughts, and storms
Ocean acidification and coral bleaching
Shifts in climate zones and ecosystems
🌊 Impacts of Climate Change
🌏 Climate change affects natural and human systems on multiple scales:
🌿 Environmental Impacts
🌡️ Global temperature rise
❄️ Melting glaciers and reduced snow cover
🌊 Sea-level rise threatening coastal cities
🏜️ Desertification and changes in rainfall patterns
🐧 Habitat loss and species extinction
🏙️ Socio-Economic Impacts
🚜 Reduced crop yields and food insecurity
🌊 Increased flood and drought risks
🏥 Spread of vector-borne diseases
🏡 Displacement of populations (climate refugees)
💸 Economic losses from extreme weather events
🌀 Global Efforts to Combat Climate Change
🌐 Addressing climate change requires coordinated international action:
🌍 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, 1992): Foundation for global climate policy.
☀️ Kyoto Protocol (1997): Legally binding emission reduction targets for developed countries.
🌱 Paris Agreement (2015): Limit global warming to below 2°C (preferably 1.5°C) compared to pre-industrial levels.
🌿 COP Conferences: Annual meetings to assess progress and strengthen commitments.
🌎 Carbon Trading & Carbon Tax: Economic tools to reduce emissions.
🌱 Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies
📊 Mitigation – Reducing greenhouse gas emissions:
Transition to renewable energy (solar, wind, hydro).
Energy efficiency and green technology.
Reforestation and afforestation.
Sustainable agriculture and transport.
📊 Adaptation – Adjusting to impacts of climate change:
Building resilient infrastructure.
Improving water management.
Early warning systems for disasters.
Climate-smart agriculture.
🪐 Future Climate Scenarios
Climate models predict significant changes by 2100 if emissions continue unabated:
🌡️ Global temperature may rise by 2.5–4.5°C.
🌊 Sea level could rise by 0.6–1.1 m.
❄️ Arctic Ocean may become ice-free in summer.
🌪️ Extreme weather events will intensify.
📍 Tipping Points:
Greenland and Antarctic ice sheet collapse.
Amazon rainforest dieback.
Permafrost thaw releasing methane.
🏡 Role of Individuals in Combating Climate Change
Everyone has a role to play:
🌱 Reduce, reuse, and recycle.
💡 Conserve energy and water.
🚴 Use sustainable transport.
🌿 Support renewable energy initiatives.
🗳️ Advocate for climate action policies.
📚 2. Summary (~300 Words)
Climate refers to the long-term average of weather conditions, influenced by factors such as latitude, altitude, ocean currents, and pressure systems. Köppen’s classification divides world climates into tropical, dry, temperate, continental, polar, and highland types. The Earth’s climate has changed naturally over geological time due to solar variations, orbital changes, volcanic activity, and tectonic shifts.
However, recent changes are largely anthropogenic. The burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, industrialization, and agriculture have increased greenhouse gas concentrations, enhancing the greenhouse effect and causing global warming. Impacts include rising temperatures, melting ice caps, sea-level rise, extreme weather, and biodiversity loss.
Global initiatives like the UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol, and Paris Agreement aim to reduce emissions and limit warming. Mitigation strategies include renewable energy use, afforestation, and sustainable practices, while adaptation measures focus on resilience and disaster preparedness. Future scenarios warn of significant temperature rise and sea-level increase if emissions are not controlled.
Combating climate change requires collective action by governments, industries, and individuals. Understanding global climate systems and their changes is essential for safeguarding ecosystems, sustaining human societies, and ensuring a stable and habitable planet for future generations.
⚡ 3. Quick Recap (~100 Words)
Climate is the long-term average of weather, influenced by latitude, altitude, ocean currents, and more. Earth’s climate zones include tropical, dry, temperate, continental, polar, and highland types. While natural factors once drove climate changes, human activities now cause rapid warming through greenhouse gas emissions. Consequences include rising temperatures, melting ice, sea-level rise, and extreme weather. Global efforts like the Paris Agreement aim to limit warming. Mitigation and adaptation are vital strategies. Collective action at all levels is essential to combat climate change and protect life on Earth.
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QUESTIONS FROM TEXTBOOK
📘 Questions and Answers (Questions and Answers Together)
✨ 1. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
🔴 Q1: Which one of the following is suitable for Koeppen’s “A” type of climate?
🟢 (a) High rainfall in all the months
🔵 (b) Mean monthly temperature of the coldest month more than freezing point
🟡 (c) Mean monthly temperature of all the months more than 18°C
🟣 (d) Average temperature for all the months below 10°C
✅ Answer: 🟡 (c) Mean monthly temperature of all the months more than 18°C
🟠 Q2: Koeppen’s system of classification of climates can be termed as:
🟢 (a) Applied
🔵 (b) Systematic
🟡 (c) Genetic
🟣 (d) Empirical
✅ Answer: 🟣 (d) Empirical
🟢 Q3: Most of the Indian Peninsula will be grouped according to Koeppen’s system under:
🟢 (a) “Af”
🔵 (b) “BSh”
🟡 (c) “Cfb”
🟣 (d) “Am”
✅ Answer: 🟣 (d) “Am”
🟣 Q4: Which one of the following years is supposed to have recorded the warmest temperature the world over?
🟢 (a) 1990
🔵 (b) 1998
🟡 (c) 1885
🟣 (d) 1950
✅ Answer: 🔵 (b) 1998
🟡 Q5: Which one of the following groups of four climates represents humid conditions?
🟢 (a) A—B—C—E
🔵 (b) A—C—D—E
🟡 (c) B—C—D—E
🟣 (d) A—C—D—F
✅ Answer: 🔵 (b) A—C—D—E
✏️ 2. Short Answer Questions (About 30 Words Each)
🔴 Q1: Which two climatic variables are used by Koeppen for classification of the climate?
🌱 Answer: Koeppen used temperature and precipitation as the two main climatic variables for his classification system. These parameters determine the climatic types and vegetation distribution.
🟡 Q2: How is the “genetic” system of classification different from the “empirical” one?
🌱 Answer: The genetic system classifies climates based on the causes and processes that produce them, whereas the empirical system (like Koeppen’s) uses observed data such as temperature and rainfall patterns.
🟢 Q3: Which types of climates have very low range of temperature?
🌱 Answer: Equatorial climates have a very low annual range of temperature due to consistent solar radiation and minimal seasonal variation throughout the year.
🔵 Q4: What type of climatic conditions would prevail if the sun spots increase?
🌱 Answer: An increase in sun spots leads to greater solar radiation, causing higher global temperatures, warmer climates, and possibly increased evaporation and rainfall.
📜 3. Long Answer Questions (About 150 Words Each)
🔴 Q1: Make a comparison of the climatic conditions between the “A” and “B” types of climate.
🌱 Answer:
“A” Type Climate (Tropical):
Found near the equator.
Mean monthly temperature above 18°C.
High annual rainfall, often exceeding 150 cm.
Minimal temperature range and high humidity.
Vegetation: Dense tropical rainforests.
“B” Type Climate (Dry):
Found in subtropical and continental interiors.
Low precipitation, often below 50 cm annually.
Large diurnal and seasonal temperature variations.
Vegetation: Sparse, including xerophytes and desert shrubs.
Thus, “A” climates are warm and wet, while “B” climates are hot or cold but dry.
🟡 Q2: What type of vegetation would you find in the “C” and “A” types of climate?
🌱 Answer:
“A” Type Climate: Supports evergreen tropical rainforests, mangroves, and dense broadleaf forests due to abundant rainfall and warm temperatures.
“C” Type Climate (Temperate): Supports deciduous forests, mixed forests, and grasslands. Rainfall is moderate, and seasonal changes influence vegetation patterns.
Overall, tropical climates encourage luxuriant vegetation, whereas temperate regions have more seasonal and diverse plant types.
🟢 Q3: What do you understand by the term “Greenhouse Gases”? Make a list of greenhouse gases.
🌱 Answer: Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are atmospheric gases that trap heat by absorbing and emitting infrared radiation, maintaining Earth’s temperature. Without them, Earth would be too cold for life.
Major greenhouse gases include:
Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
Methane (CH₄)
Nitrous oxide (N₂O)
Water vapour (H₂O)
Ozone (O₃)
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Their increased concentration due to human activities is causing global warming and climate change.
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OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMS
🌏 Section A — Multiple Choice Questions (1 mark each)
🔵 Question 1: What is the average weather condition of a place over a long period called?
🟢 1️⃣ Climate
🔴 2️⃣ Weather
🟡 3️⃣ Season
🔴 4️⃣ Precipitation
✔️ Answer: Climate
🟡 Question 2: Which of the following is the primary factor controlling the distribution of world climates?
🟢 1️⃣ Latitude
🔴 2️⃣ Soil
🟡 3️⃣ Vegetation
🔴 4️⃣ Elevation
✔️ Answer: Latitude
🔴 Question 3: Which of the following climatic classification systems was developed by Wladimir Köppen?
🟢 1️⃣ Köppen system
🔴 2️⃣ Thornthwaite system
🟡 3️⃣ Strahler system
🔴 4️⃣ Trewartha system
✔️ Answer: Köppen system
🟢 Question 4: Which climatic region is characterized by hot and wet conditions throughout the year?
🟢 1️⃣ Equatorial
🔴 2️⃣ Mediterranean
🟡 3️⃣ Tundra
🔴 4️⃣ Desert
✔️ Answer: Equatorial
🔵 Question 5: The Mediterranean type of climate is best known for:
🟢 1️⃣ Wet winters and dry summers
🔴 2️⃣ Heavy rainfall all year
🟡 3️⃣ Hot and humid conditions
🔴 4️⃣ Cold and dry winters
✔️ Answer: Wet winters and dry summers
🟡 Question 6: Which climatic region is associated with permafrost?
🟢 1️⃣ Tundra
🔴 2️⃣ Monsoon
🟡 3️⃣ Savanna
🔴 4️⃣ Steppe
✔️ Answer: Tundra
🔴 Question 7: Which of the following greenhouse gases has the highest concentration in Earth’s atmosphere?
🟢 1️⃣ Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
🔴 2️⃣ Methane (CH₄)
🟡 3️⃣ Nitrous oxide (N₂O)
🔴 4️⃣ Ozone (O₃)
✔️ Answer: Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
🟢 Question 8: Which international agreement focuses on reducing greenhouse gas emissions?
🟢 1️⃣ Kyoto Protocol
🔴 2️⃣ Warsaw Pact
🟡 3️⃣ Montreal Protocol
🔴 4️⃣ Paris Declaration
✔️ Answer: Kyoto Protocol
🔵 Question 9: Which climatic region is also known as the “breadbasket of the world”?
🟢 1️⃣ Temperate grassland
🔴 2️⃣ Tundra
🟡 3️⃣ Desert
🔴 4️⃣ Equatorial forest
✔️ Answer: Temperate grassland
🟡 Question 10: The main cause of recent global climate change is:
🟢 1️⃣ Human activities
🔴 2️⃣ Volcanic eruptions
🟡 3️⃣ Solar variation
🔴 4️⃣ Ocean salinity
✔️ Answer: Human activities
🔴 Question 11: Which phenomenon leads to global rise in sea levels?
🟢 1️⃣ Melting of glaciers and polar ice
🔴 2️⃣ Tectonic uplift
🟡 3️⃣ Desertification
🔴 4️⃣ Volcanic cooling
✔️ Answer: Melting of glaciers and polar ice
🟢 Question 12: Which climatic region experiences the highest annual range of temperature?
🟢 1️⃣ Continental climate
🔴 2️⃣ Equatorial climate
🟡 3️⃣ Monsoonal climate
🔴 4️⃣ Tundra climate
✔️ Answer: Continental climate
🧭 Section B — Short Answer Questions (15–20 words each)
🔵 Question 13: Define climate.
🟢 Answer: Climate is the average atmospheric condition of a place over a long period, usually 30 years or more.
🟡 Question 14: What are greenhouse gases?
🟢 Answer: Greenhouse gases are atmospheric gases like CO₂, CH₄, and water vapour that trap heat and warm the Earth.
🔴 Question 15: What is global warming?
🟢 Answer: Global warming is the long-term increase in Earth’s average temperature due to rising greenhouse gas concentrations.
🟢 Question 16: What is Köppen’s classification of climate based on?
🟢 Answer: Köppen’s classification is based on temperature, precipitation, and vegetation characteristics of different climatic regions.
🔵 Question 17: What is permafrost?
🟢 Answer: Permafrost is permanently frozen ground found in polar regions and tundra climates, remaining frozen year-round.
🟡 Question 18: What is desert climate?
🟢 Answer: Desert climate is characterized by very low rainfall, high evaporation, and extreme temperature variations between day and night.
🔴 Question 19: What is the main cause of recent climate change?
🟢 Answer: The main cause is human-induced greenhouse gas emissions from burning fossil fuels and deforestation.
🟢 Question 20: What is the Paris Agreement?
🟢 Answer: The Paris Agreement is a 2015 international treaty aimed at limiting global warming to below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels.
🌍 Section C — Medium Answer Questions (≈60 words each)
🔵 Question 21: Explain the factors that influence world climate.
🟢 Answer: Major factors affecting world climate include:
Latitude: Determines solar radiation received.
Altitude: Higher altitudes are cooler.
Distance from the sea: Coastal areas have moderate climates.
Ocean currents: Warm and cold currents influence temperature.
Winds and pressure belts: Distribute heat and moisture.
Topography: Mountains and valleys affect rainfall and temperature.
🟡 Question 22: Describe the main features of equatorial climate.
🟢 Answer: The equatorial climate is found near the equator (0°–10°). It is hot and humid year-round, with average temperatures around 27 °C. Rainfall is abundant (over 200 cm annually), occurring mainly as convectional rainfall. The region has dense evergreen forests and little seasonal variation. High humidity and uniform temperatures support rich biodiversity and tropical ecosystems.
🔴 Question 23: Explain the causes and consequences of global warming.
🟢 Answer: Causes: Burning fossil fuels, deforestation, industrial emissions, and agriculture release greenhouse gases.
Consequences: Global warming leads to rising sea levels, melting glaciers, extreme weather, biodiversity loss, and changes in rainfall patterns. It threatens food security, displaces populations, and increases health risks. Global cooperation is essential to mitigate its impacts and limit temperature rise.
🟢 Question 24: Describe the characteristics of tundra climate.
🟢 Answer: Tundra climate is found near the Arctic and Antarctic circles. It experiences long, cold winters and short, cool summers. Temperatures often remain below 0 °C, and precipitation is minimal, mostly as snow. The ground remains frozen (permafrost). Vegetation is sparse, consisting of mosses and lichens. This climate supports limited wildlife and short growing seasons.
🔵 Question 25: What is climate change? Mention its natural and human causes.
🟢 Answer: Climate change is a long-term alteration in temperature, precipitation, and weather patterns.
Natural causes: Volcanic eruptions, solar variations, and changes in Earth’s orbit.
Human causes: Burning fossil fuels, deforestation, industrialization, and agriculture.
These factors enhance greenhouse gas concentrations, altering global weather systems and impacting ecosystems and human societies worldwide.
🟡 Question 26: Explain the greenhouse effect and its importance.
🟢 Answer: The greenhouse effect is the warming of Earth’s surface due to gases like CO₂, CH₄, and water vapour trapping outgoing terrestrial radiation. It maintains Earth’s average temperature (~15 °C), making life possible. Without it, Earth would be about -18 °C. However, excessive greenhouse gas emissions intensify this effect, causing global warming and climate change.
🏞️ Section D — Detailed Answer Questions (≈150 words each)
🔴 Question 27: Discuss the classification of world climates according to Köppen.
🟢 Answer: Wladimir Köppen classified world climates based on temperature, precipitation, and vegetation. The main groups are:
A – Tropical: Hot and wet, includes rainforest and savanna.
B – Dry: Low precipitation, includes deserts and steppes.
C – Temperate: Moderate temperature, includes Mediterranean and marine climates.
D – Continental: Severe winters, warm summers, found in interior continents.
E – Polar: Very cold, includes tundra and ice cap climates.
Each group has subtypes based on seasonal variations and precipitation patterns. Köppen’s classification is widely used because it links climate with vegetation and provides a clear framework for understanding global climate distribution. It helps study biodiversity, agriculture, and climatic impacts on human activities.
🟢 Question 28: Explain the impacts of climate change on the environment and human life.
🟢 Answer: Climate change affects both natural systems and human societies. Environmental impacts include melting glaciers, rising sea levels, desertification, and loss of biodiversity. Ecosystems shift, threatening species and disrupting food chains. Human impacts include reduced agricultural productivity, water scarcity, health problems, and increased frequency of natural disasters like floods and droughts. Coastal communities face displacement due to sea-level rise, and infrastructure suffers damage from extreme weather. Economic costs rise as adaptation and mitigation become essential. Social inequality worsens as vulnerable populations are disproportionately affected. Global cooperation, renewable energy use, reforestation, and sustainable practices are vital to reduce risks and adapt to changing conditions.
🔵 Question 29: Discuss the measures to mitigate climate change.
🟢 Answer: Climate change mitigation requires coordinated global action. Key measures include:
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions by switching to renewable energy (solar, wind, hydro).
Enhancing carbon sinks through afforestation and reforestation.
Energy efficiency improvements in industry and transportation.
Carbon capture and storage technologies.
International agreements like the Paris Agreement and Kyoto Protocol.
Sustainable agriculture and responsible land use.
Public awareness and lifestyle changes, such as reduced fossil fuel use and waste minimization, also contribute. Global cooperation, technological innovation, and financial support for developing nations are crucial. Mitigation strategies not only slow climate change but also provide co-benefits like cleaner air, energy security, and economic resilience.
🟡 Question 30: Explain the role of international agreements in combating climate change.
🟢 Answer: International agreements unite nations to tackle climate change collectively. The Kyoto Protocol (1997) set binding emission targets for developed countries. The Paris Agreement (2015) aims to limit global warming below 2 °C, with nationally determined contributions (NDCs) for all countries. The Montreal Protocol successfully phased out ozone-depleting substances, indirectly reducing greenhouse gases. These treaties encourage cooperation, technology transfer, and financial aid to developing nations. They also create accountability and reporting frameworks. However, challenges like insufficient commitments and enforcement remain. Strengthening international collaboration, updating targets, and supporting climate finance are essential for achieving long-term climate goals and safeguarding the planet for future generations.
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ONE PAGE REVISION SHEET
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MIND MAPS
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