Class 12 : Poltical Science (English) – Lesson 11.India’s External Relations
EXPLANATION & SUMMARY
🧭 Introduction
🔹 After Independence in 1947, India faced the enormous task of defining its foreign policy.
🔹 The world was divided into two power blocs — the US-led capitalist bloc and the USSR-led socialist bloc during the Cold War.
🔹 India, under Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, chose a path of Non-Alignment — independent decision-making guided by national interest.
🔹 India’s foreign policy became an essential instrument to secure its sovereignty, promote development, and ensure peace.
🧱 Foundations of India’s Foreign Policy
🟢 1. Sovereignty and Independence — Protect newly won freedom from external dominance.
🔵 2. Peaceful Coexistence — Adopt peaceful means for resolving disputes.
🟣 3. Anti-Colonialism and Anti-Racism — Support global decolonisation and oppose racial discrimination.
🟠 4. Economic Development — Use international cooperation for national progress.
🔴 5. Non-Alignment — Avoid military alliances; maintain freedom to choose policy direction.
🌐 Role of Jawaharlal Nehru
💡 Nehru, India’s first Prime Minister and External Affairs Minister, shaped the policy with three core ideas:
1️⃣ Independence in Decision-Making
2️⃣ World Peace through Dialogue
3️⃣ Non-Alignment as a guiding principle
✔️ He believed India should not be tied to any bloc but act as a mediator between them.
✔️ Advocated disarmament, peaceful coexistence, and support for the United Nations.
🤝 Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)
🟣 India was one of the founding members of NAM, alongside Yugoslavia, Egypt, Indonesia, and Ghana.
🟢 NAM aimed to:
Stay independent from US or USSR blocs
Promote peace, cooperation, and equality
Support decolonisation and oppose imperialism
Advocate economic justice and South–South cooperation
💬 NAM reflected India’s aspiration to lead the Global South and maintain strategic autonomy.
⚔️ India and the Cold War
🧭 Despite Non-Alignment, India maintained friendly relations with both blocs:
🟢 With USSR:
Economic and technical cooperation
Support in industrialisation (e.g., Bhilai Steel Plant)
Political backing in UN on Kashmir
🔵 With USA:
Economic aid through PL-480 scheme
Educational and technological exchanges
⚠️ But India’s criticism of imperialism sometimes created tensions with the US.
🕊️ Policy of Peaceful Coexistence (Panchsheel)
In 1954, India and China signed the Panchsheel Agreement based on Five Principles:
1️⃣ Mutual respect for territorial integrity and sovereignty
2️⃣ Mutual non-aggression
3️⃣ Mutual non-interference
4️⃣ Equality and mutual benefit
5️⃣ Peaceful coexistence
💡 These principles became the foundation of NAM and symbolised India’s independent diplomacy.
📈 Foreign Policy during Nehru Era
🟢 Achievements:
India gained global recognition as a peace-loving nation.
Acted as mediator in Korean and Indo-China conflicts.
Supported liberation movements in Asia and Africa.
🟠 Challenges:
Indo-China border tensions
Pakistan conflict over Kashmir
Economic limitations constrained global influence
⚠️ Indo-China Relations
✔️ Initially cordial, marked by the slogan “Hindi-Chini Bhai Bhai”.
✔️ Strained over Tibet issue and border disputes (Aksai Chin, NEFA).
✔️ Culminated in 1962 war — India suffered defeat.
🧭 Result:
Shock to Nehru’s idealism
Strengthened India’s defence
Tilt towards USSR in strategic matters
⚔️ Indo-Pakistan Relations
Conflict over Kashmir from 1947 led to wars in 1947–48, 1965, 1971.
India’s stand: Kashmir’s accession was legal and final.
1971: India supported Bangladesh Liberation, leading to creation of Bangladesh.
Simla Agreement (1972): Peaceful bilateral resolution of disputes.
🧱 Relations with Neighbours
🟢 Nepal & Bhutan: Cordial, based on treaties and cooperation.
🔵 Sri Lanka: Close ties; concern over Tamil issue.
🟠 Myanmar: Shared cultural links and strategic ties.
⚠️ China: Suspicion after 1962 war; improving gradually post-1976.
India’s neighbourhood policy aimed for mutual trust and development.
🌏 India and the United Nations
India is a founding member of the UN.
Advocated disarmament, peacekeeping, and anti-colonialism.
Contributed troops to UN Peacekeeping Forces.
Supported reforms in the UN and sought Permanent Seat in Security Council.
Active role in UNCTAD, WHO, UNESCO, etc.
🕊️ Disarmament and Peace Efforts
💬 India opposed nuclear weapons and called for universal disarmament.
✔️ Proposed Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT).
✔️ Opposed Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) for its discriminatory nature.
⚙️ Conducted peaceful nuclear explosion in 1974 to assert scientific advancement.
💱 Economic Diplomacy
🌍 Post-Independence goals included:
Attracting aid for industrialisation
Participating in global trade (GATT/WTO)
Building relations with developing nations
India became a voice for Third World solidarity and New International Economic Order (NIEO).
🧭 Indira Gandhi Era
Pragmatic foreign policy, leaning towards USSR after 1971 Treaty of Friendship.
Balanced ties with USA despite tensions.
1974: Pokhran Nuclear Test — assertion of sovereignty.
Support to liberation movements and NAM leadership continued.
🌐 Rajiv Gandhi and Post-Cold War Transition
✔️ Promoted technology-driven diplomacy
✔️ Improved ties with USA, China, and ASEAN nations
✔️ Advocated for global disarmament
✔️ 1991 onwards, economic reforms influenced foreign policy orientation.
🌍 Post-1991 Foreign Policy
With end of Cold War:
🧭 New priorities emerged —
Economic liberalisation
Global integration
Strategic partnerships
Multipolar diplomacy
✔️ Relations improved with USA, Russia, EU, Japan
✔️ Engagement with ASEAN, SAARC, BRICS
✔️ Focus on energy security, trade, and counter-terrorism.
⚙️ Contemporary Trends
🔸 Emphasis on neighbourhood-first policy
🔸 Active participation in multilateral organisations
🔸 Advocacy for UN reforms
🔸 Strategic autonomy through multi-alignment
🔸 Balancing ties with US, Russia, China simultaneously
🧠 India continues to uphold peace, development, and strategic independence as guiding principles.
🧭 Key Features of India’s Foreign Policy
1️⃣ Non-Alignment
2️⃣ Peaceful Coexistence (Panchsheel)
3️⃣ Anti-Colonialism
4️⃣ Disarmament Advocacy
5️⃣ South-South Cooperation
6️⃣ Autonomy and Pragmatism
7️⃣ Faith in International Law and UN Charter
📊 Achievements
✔️ Enhanced international stature
✔️ Leader of Global South
✔️ Maintained sovereignty and autonomy
✔️ Promoted world peace
✔️ Secured developmental cooperation
⚠️ Challenges
❌ Border conflicts (China, Pakistan)
❌ Balancing great power relations
❌ Dependence on external trade and energy
❌ Regional instability and terrorism
❌ Climate change and resource security
🌏 Conclusion
India’s foreign policy reflects its civilisational ethos, strategic interests, and moral vision.
From Nehru’s idealism to modern pragmatism, it has evolved to ensure national security, economic progress, and global peace.
Today, India stands as a responsible global power, committed to a multipolar, equitable, and peaceful world order.
🧾 Summary (200 Words)
India’s external relations evolved from Nehru’s vision of independent diplomacy during the Cold War. The guiding principle was Non-Alignment, avoiding military blocs while advocating peaceful coexistence through Panchsheel. India championed decolonisation, racial equality, and disarmament. Despite maintaining neutrality, India leaned towards the Soviet Union due to mutual interests and border conflicts with China and Pakistan.
Indira Gandhi strengthened strategic autonomy through 1971 Indo-Soviet Treaty and Pokhran nuclear test.
Post-1991, with global changes, India adopted economic diplomacy, fostering ties with the US, Russia, China, and regional blocs like ASEAN and SAARC.
India’s foreign policy now emphasises multi-alignment, strategic autonomy, neighbourhood-first, and active participation in global governance.
It continues to uphold peace, sovereignty, and development, balancing traditional values with pragmatic choices.
📝 Quick Recap (100 Words)
🌍 Core: Non-Alignment, Panchsheel, sovereignty
🤝 Allies: USSR cooperation; cautious US ties
⚔️ Conflicts: Pakistan (Kashmir), China (1962 war)
🕊️ UN Role: Peacekeeping, disarmament advocacy
💡 1974: Pokhran nuclear test; assertion of autonomy
📈 Post-1991: Globalisation, economic diplomacy
🌏 Today: Multi-alignment, neighbourhood-first, global leadership
🎯 Goal: Peace, development, strategic independence
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QUESTIONS FROM TEXTBOOK
🔵 Question 1:
Write ‘true’ or ‘false’ against each of these statements.
(a) Non-alignment allowed India to gain assistance both from USA and USSR.
(b) India’s relationship with her neighbours has been strained from the beginning.
(c) The Cold War has affected the relationship between India and Pakistan.
(d) The Treaty of Peace and Friendship in 1971 was the result of India’s closeness to USA.
🟢 Answer:
(a) ✔️ True – India maintained friendly ties with both superpowers and received aid from both.
(b) ❌ False – Relations were initially cordial; issues developed gradually.
(c) ✔️ True – Cold War rivalries influenced Indo-Pak tensions.
(d) ❌ False – The 1971 treaty was due to India’s closeness with USSR, not USA.
🔵 Question 2:
Match the following:
Column A Column B
(a) The goal of India’s foreign policy in the period 1950–1964 (ii) Preservation of territorial integrity, sovereignty and economic development
(b) Panchsheel (iii) Five principles of peaceful coexistence
(c) Bandung Conference (iv) Led to the establishment of NAM
(d) Dalai Lama (i) Tibetan spiritual leader who crossed over to India
🟢 Answer:
(a) → (ii)
(b) → (iii)
(c) → (iv)
(d) → (i)
🔵 Question 3:
Why did Nehru regard conduct of foreign relations as an essential indicator of independence? State any two reasons with examples to support your reading.
🟢 Answer:
✔️ 1. Assertion of Sovereignty:
After independence, India wanted to make independent decisions without foreign pressure, e.g. Non-Alignment Policy ensured autonomy.
✔️ 2. Reflection of National Interests:
Foreign policy reflected India’s economic and security needs, e.g. receiving aid from both USA and USSR.
🧭 Thus, foreign relations symbolised India’s true freedom in world affairs.
🔵 Question 4:
“The conduct of foreign affairs is an outcome of a two-way interaction between domestic compulsions and prevailing international climate.” Take one example from India’s external relations in the 1960s to substantiate your answer.
🟢 Answer:
✔️ Domestic priorities (economic development, defence) influenced foreign decisions.
✔️ Example: 1962 Sino-Indian War — India’s need for security led to strengthening defence and closer ties with USSR.
🧭 Thus, foreign policy reflected both internal needs and global conditions.
🔵 Question 5:
Identify any two aspects of India’s foreign policy that you would like to retain and two that you would like to change, if you were to become a decision maker. Give reasons to support your position.
🟢 Answer:
✔️ To Retain:
1️⃣ Non-Alignment – Ensures strategic independence.
2️⃣ Peaceful Coexistence – Promotes global harmony.
✔️ To Change:
1️⃣ Slow Response to Neighbours – Needs proactive regional diplomacy.
2️⃣ Dependence on Imports – Should focus on self-reliance in defence and energy.
🧭 Reason: To strengthen India’s position as a self-reliant global power.
🔵 Question 6:
Write short notes on the following:
(a) India’s Nuclear Policy
🟢 Answer:
✔️ India follows a peaceful nuclear policy, focusing on non-weaponisation and disarmament.
✔️ Opposed NPT and CTBT for being discriminatory.
✔️ Conducted peaceful nuclear explosion (Pokhran 1974) for scientific advancement.
✔️ Advocates “No First Use” and global disarmament.
(b) Consensus in Foreign Policy Matters
🟢 Answer:
✔️ Broad agreement across political parties on key foreign policy issues.
✔️ Continuity in policies since Nehru’s era (Non-Alignment, Panchsheel).
✔️ Reflects unity despite political differences.
✔️ Ensures stability and credibility in international relations.
🔵 Question 7:
India’s foreign policy was built around the principles of peace and cooperation. But India fought three wars in a space of ten years between 1962 and 1971. Would you say that this was a failure of the foreign policy? Or would you say that this was a result of international situation? Give reasons to support your answer.
🟢 Answer:
✔️ Wars were not due to policy failure but external circumstances:
1962: China’s aggression over border dispute.
1965 & 1971: Pakistan’s hostility over Kashmir and Bangladesh issue.
✔️ India’s policy of peace couldn’t prevent wars imposed by others.
🧭 Hence, wars reflected international realities, not policy weakness.
🔵 Question 8:
Does India’s foreign policy reflect her desire to be an important regional power? Argue your case with the Bangladesh war of 1971 as an example.
🟢 Answer:
✔️ Yes, India’s support for Bangladesh Liberation showed regional leadership.
✔️ Signed Indo-Soviet Treaty (1971) for strategic backing.
✔️ Humanitarian support to refugees and decisive military action proved India’s regional influence.
🧭 Thus, foreign policy aimed at peace, stability, and leadership in South Asia.
🔵 Question 9:
How does political leadership of a nation affect its foreign policy? Explain this with the help of examples from India’s foreign policy.
🟢 Answer:
✔️ Leadership defines goals and strategies:
Nehru: Non-Alignment, Peace, Panchsheel.
Indira Gandhi: Assertive diplomacy, 1971 treaty, nuclear test.
Post-1991 leaders: Economic diplomacy, global integration.
🧭 Thus, leadership shapes direction, tone, and priorities of foreign policy.
🔵 Question 10:
Read this passage and answer the questions below:
“Broadly, non-alignment means not tying yourself off with military blocs… It means trying to view things, as far as possible, not from the military point of view, though that has to come in sometimes, but independently, and trying to maintain friendly relations with all countries.” — Jawaharlal Nehru
(a) Why does Nehru want to keep off military blocs?
🟢 Answer:
To maintain independence, avoid entanglement in superpower conflicts, and promote peaceful coexistence.
(b) Do you think that the Indo-Soviet friendship treaty violated the principle of non-alignment? Give reasons for your answer.
🟢 Answer:
No. The treaty was not a military alliance; it ensured strategic support during crisis without compromising independent decision-making.
(c) If there were no military blocs, do you think non-alignment would have been unnecessary?
🟢 Answer:
Non-alignment would still be relevant as it represents independent judgment, peaceful diplomacy, and freedom from dominance, not just neutrality.
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OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMS
🧩 Section A: Very Short Answer / Objective (1 mark each)
🔵 Question 1:
Which one of the following best describes India’s foreign policy in the early years after independence?
🟡 1. Alignment with Western bloc
🟢 2. Alignment with Eastern bloc
🔵 3. Non-alignment
🔴 4. Isolationism
🟢 Answer: 3. Non-alignment
💡 India under Nehru chose independent foreign policy, not joining any power bloc.
🔵 Question 2:
Who is known as the architect of India’s foreign policy?
🟢 1. Jawaharlal Nehru
🔵 2. Mahatma Gandhi
🟡 3. Indira Gandhi
🔴 4. Dr. Rajendra Prasad
🟢 Answer: 1. Jawaharlal Nehru
💡 He laid foundation of Non-Alignment and peaceful coexistence.
🔵 Question 3:
Which principle is not part of Panchsheel?
🟢 1. Mutual respect for territorial integrity
🔵 2. Non-interference
🟡 3. Mutual aggression
🔴 4. Peaceful coexistence
🟢 Answer: 3. Mutual aggression
🔵 Question 4:
When was the Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace and Friendship signed?
🟢 1. 1962
🔵 2. 1965
🟡 3. 1971
🔴 4. 1975
🟢 Answer: 3. 1971
💡 Signed for strategic support before Bangladesh War.
🔵 Question 5:
The Non-Aligned Movement was established after which conference?
🟢 1. Bandung Conference
🔵 2. Belgrade Conference
🟡 3. Havana Conference
🔴 4. Geneva Conference
🟢 Answer: 2. Belgrade Conference (1961)
🔵 Question 6:
Which one of the following is true about India’s foreign policy?
🟢 1. It is based on military alliances
🔵 2. It is based on neutrality
🟡 3. It is based on peaceful coexistence
🔴 4. It is based on isolationism
🟢 Answer: 3. Peaceful coexistence
🔵 Question 7:
The policy of non-alignment means:
🟢 1. Joining both blocs
🔵 2. Joining military blocs
🟡 3. Maintaining independence in foreign policy
🔴 4. Avoiding international relations
🟢 Answer: 3. Maintaining independence in foreign policy
🔵 Question 8:
Which of the following statements about India’s foreign policy is true?
🟢 1. India joined NATO
🔵 2. India followed Non-alignment
🟡 3. India joined SEATO
🔴 4. India was a member of Warsaw Pact
🟢 Answer: 2. India followed Non-alignment
🔵 Question 9:
What does ‘NAM’ stand for?
🟢 1. Non-Allied Movement
🔵 2. Non-Aligned Movement
🟡 3. National Alignment Movement
🔴 4. Non-Agreement Movement
🟢 Answer: 2. Non-Aligned Movement
🔵 Question 10:
Which principle guided India’s relationship with China in the early years?
🟢 Answer: Panchsheel – Five principles of peaceful coexistence.
✳️ Section B: Short Answer Type (2 marks each)
🔵 Question 11:
What is meant by Non-Alignment?
🟢 Answer:
It refers to India’s policy of not joining any military bloc during the Cold War. It ensured independent decision-making and balanced relations with all nations.
🔵 Question 12:
State any two objectives of India’s foreign policy.
🟢 Answer:
1️⃣ Preservation of sovereignty and independence.
2️⃣ Promotion of peaceful coexistence and global cooperation.
🔵 Question 13:
Explain Panchsheel principles.
🟢 Answer:
The five principles signed between India and China (1954):
1️⃣ Mutual respect for territorial integrity
2️⃣ Non-aggression
3️⃣ Non-interference
4️⃣ Equality and mutual benefit
5️⃣ Peaceful coexistence
🔵 Question 14:
What was the main goal of India’s foreign policy during Nehru’s period?
🟢 Answer:
To achieve economic development, maintain peace, and avoid alignment with superpower blocs.
🔵 Question 15:
Why did India adopt a non-aligned foreign policy?
🟢 Answer:
✔️ To protect national interests
✔️ To maintain sovereignty
✔️ To avoid Cold War conflicts and focus on development
🔵 Question 16:
Name the five founding members of NAM.
🟢 Answer:
India, Egypt, Yugoslavia, Indonesia, Ghana.
🔵 Question 17:
What was the Indo-Soviet Treaty (1971)?
🟢 Answer:
A 20-year peace treaty ensuring mutual strategic cooperation and assistance, especially before the Bangladesh Liberation War.
🔵 Question 18:
Mention two reasons for the importance of NAM for India.
🟢 Answer:
1️⃣ Ensured strategic independence during Cold War.
2️⃣ Helped India maintain friendly ties with both USA and USSR.
🔷 Section C — Short Answer Type II (3 marks each)
🔵 Question 19:
Explain the main features of India’s foreign policy in the early years after independence.
🟢 Answer:
✔️ Non-alignment: India refused to join either USA or USSR blocs.
✔️ Peaceful Coexistence: Guided by Panchsheel principles to maintain friendly relations.
✔️ Support for Decolonisation: Advocated freedom of Asian–African nations and opposed colonialism.
✔️ Focus on Development: Foreign policy aimed to gain economic and technological help from multiple countries.
✔️ UN Support: Promoted collective security through United Nations.
🔵 Question 20:
What were the objectives of the Panchsheel Agreement (1954)?
🟢 Answer:
1️⃣ To build mutual trust and avoid conflict between India and China.
2️⃣ To respect territorial integrity and sovereignty.
3️⃣ To ensure non-interference in each other’s internal matters.
4️⃣ To follow equality and peaceful coexistence.
💡 It became the foundation of India’s foreign policy in Asia.
🔵 Question 21:
How did the Cold War affect India’s foreign relations?
🟢 Answer:
✔️ India remained non-aligned, avoiding military blocs.
✔️ Maintained relations with both superpowers for economic and defence assistance.
✔️ Sometimes faced criticism for leaning towards USSR (especially during 1971 treaty).
✔️ Acted as mediator in global conflicts, promoting peace and dialogue.
🔵 Question 22:
Explain the significance of the Bandung Conference (1955) for India.
🟢 Answer:
1️⃣ Strengthened Asian–African solidarity against colonialism.
2️⃣ Laid foundation for Non-Aligned Movement.
3️⃣ Enhanced India’s role as leader of developing nations.
💡 Bandung Conference was the first major platform for newly independent nations to voice common concerns.
🔵 Question 23:
What are the goals of India’s nuclear policy?
🟢 Answer:
✔️ Commitment to peaceful uses of nuclear energy.
✔️ Belief in complete disarmament and global non-proliferation.
✔️ Policy of “No First Use” — India won’t initiate nuclear attack.
✔️ Maintain credible minimum deterrence for national security.
🔵 Question 24:
Discuss the Indo-Soviet Treaty of 1971.
🟢 Answer:
✔️ Signed on 9 August 1971 for 20 years.
✔️ Promised mutual strategic cooperation and consultation on global issues.
✔️ Provided India assurance of support during Bangladesh Liberation War.
✔️ Strengthened bilateral trade and defence ties.
🔵 Question 25:
State any three achievements of India’s foreign policy.
🟢 Answer:
1️⃣ Maintained independence during Cold War.
2️⃣ Enhanced international prestige through NAM leadership.
3️⃣ Promoted peace and cooperation in South Asia.
4️⃣ Balanced ties with both USA and USSR.
🔵 Question 26:
Explain the relevance of Non-Alignment in today’s world.
🟢 Answer:
✔️ Helps nations maintain strategic autonomy.
✔️ Encourages collective voice for developing countries.
✔️ Supports multipolar world and global cooperation.
✔️ Remains useful in avoiding dominance of any single power bloc.
🔶 Section D — Long Answer Type (4 marks each)
🔵 Question 27:
Critically evaluate the Indo-China relations after independence.
🟢 Answer:
✔️ Initially cordial with Panchsheel Agreement (1954).
✔️ Deteriorated due to border disputes (Aksai Chin, NEFA).
✔️ Resulted in 1962 war and breakdown of trust.
✔️ Relations improved later through bilateral talks and trade cooperation.
💡 India continues to pursue peaceful resolution despite challenges.
🔵 Question 28:
Analyse India’s role in the Non-Aligned Movement.
🟢 Answer:
✔️ India was a founding member (Belgrade, 1961).
✔️ Promoted peaceful coexistence and independent foreign policy.
✔️ Acted as voice of developing nations.
✔️ Supported disarmament, economic cooperation, and anti-colonial struggles.
💡 NAM enhanced India’s global influence during the Cold War.
🔵 Question 29:
Passage-Based Question (from textbook)
📜 “Broadly, non-alignment means not tying yourself off with military blocs… and trying to maintain friendly relations with all countries.” — Jawaharlal Nehru
(a) Why does Nehru want to keep off military blocs?
🟢 To preserve independent decision-making and avoid Cold War conflicts.
(b) Did Indo-Soviet Treaty violate non-alignment?
🟢 No, because it was not a military alliance; it was for peace and mutual support.
(c) If no blocs existed, would non-alignment be needed?
🟢 Even then, independent foreign policy would remain vital for sovereignty.
🔵 Question 30:
Evaluate whether India’s foreign policy between 1950–1971 was a success or failure.
🟢 Answer:
✔️ Successes: Maintained independence, avoided bloc politics, promoted NAM.
✔️ Challenges: Wars with China (1962) and Pakistan (1965, 1971).
✔️ Balanced diplomacy through treaties and peace initiatives.
💡 Overall, India’s foreign policy was a measured success, safeguarding sovereignty while engaging globally.
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ONE PAGE REVISION SHEET
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MIND MAPS
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