Class 12 : History (English) – Lesson 2 Kings, Farmers and Towns

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On June 25, 2025

EXPLANATION & SUMMARY

Between 600 BCE and 600 CE, Indian subcontinent witnessed remarkable transformations—urbanization, rise of kingdoms and empires, complex administrative structures, and early economic systems. This chapter explores these changes by examining archaeological findings, inscriptions, coins, and literary texts, which together reconstruct a vivid picture of early Indian society.

🏙 Urban Centres and Their Growth
🔵 Cities of the Early Historic Period
➡ From about 6th century BCE, many cities emerged across the Indo-Gangetic plains. These were referred to as mahajanapadas—major kingdoms.
✔ Some prominent cities: Pataliputra, Ujjayini, Taxila, Mathura, and Varanasi.
✔ These cities were centres of administration, trade, and craft production.
💡 Concept: The growth of these urban centres is associated with surplus agricultural production, use of iron tools, and growth in craft activities.

🧱 Archaeological Evidences of Urban Life
🌿 Remains of fortifications, roads, drains, and pottery have been found.
🟢 Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) pottery indicates luxury and urban elite lifestyle.
✏ Note: Archaeologists also found punch-marked coins made of silver and copper, which suggest trade activities.

🏹 Mahajanapadas and State Formation
🟢 16 Mahajanapadas
➡ By 6th century BCE, 16 major kingdoms or mahajanapadas existed.
✔ Each had its own capital, army, and taxation system.
🧠 Some were monarchies (like Magadha), others were republics or gana-sanghas (like Vajji).

🔴 Magadha’s Rise to Prominence
Magadha (modern Bihar) emerged as the most powerful mahajanapada because:
✔ Fertile land and abundant iron resources
✔ Located near rivers like Ganga and Son
✔ Efficient rulers like Bimbisara and Ajatashatru
✔ Strategic marriages and military conquests

🧾 Political Structures and Rulers
🏛 Mauryan Empire
🟡 First large empire in India—founded by Chandragupta Maurya (c. 321 BCE).
✔ Kautilya’s Arthashastra describes administration and statecraft.
✔ Ashoka, the most famous Mauryan ruler, issued edicts on stone pillars and rocks.
💡 Concept: Ashokan edicts promote Dhamma—a moral code of governance.

🧠 Administration and Control
➡ The Mauryan Empire had a centralized bureaucracy, with officials to collect taxes and maintain law and order.
🟢 Megasthenes, a Greek ambassador, described Pataliputra’s grandeur and administration in Indica.
✏ Note: Urban administration included sanitation, market regulation, and security.

🏺 Trade, Commerce, and Economy
🟡 Craft Production
Archaeological sites reveal workshops for:
✔ Pottery
✔ Bead-making
✔ Metal tools
✔ Terracotta figurines
🧠 These indicate specialization and division of labour.

🪙 Use of Coins
🔴 Punch-marked coins are among the earliest coins, used from 6th century BCE.
✔ Made of silver or copper
✔ Not inscribed, but marked with symbols
💡 Real-life link: These coins facilitated trade in urban markets—an early form of currency economy.

📈 Internal and External Trade
➡ Trade routes connected cities, rivers, and coastal ports.
✔ Items traded: spices, textiles, ivory, beads
✔ Ports like Bharuch, Arikamedu show Roman links
🟢 Traders were organized into shrenis or guilds, which protected their interests and regulated trade.

📜 Literary Sources and Inscriptions
🧾 Prashastis and Inscriptions
➡ Prashastis: royal inscriptions that praised kings and their deeds.
✔ Example: Prayaga Prashasti (Allahabad Pillar Inscription) of Samudragupta, composed by his court poet Harishena.
🧠 Importance: These inscriptions offer insights into kingship, conquests, and administration.

📖 Religious and Secular Texts
🟢 Buddhist texts like the Jatakas tell stories of merchants, kings, and towns.
✔ Jatakas reflect everyday life and moral values.
✏ Note: Sanskrit texts like the Mahabharata were also updated during this time to reflect changing social norms.

👑 Notions of Kingship
🔵 The Idea of Divine Kingship
➡ Early rulers portrayed themselves as chosen by divine forces.
✔ Ashoka claimed to rule through Dhamma.
✔ Later Gupta kings adopted grand titles like Maharajadhiraja and depicted themselves as Vishnu’s incarnations.
🧠 Kingship involved both material (conquest, wealth) and moral (justice, order) responsibilities.

🛕 Urban Centres under Gupta Rule
During the Gupta period (c. 4th–6th century CE):
✔ Cities flourished again—Ujjayini, Pataliputra, Mathura
✔ Emergence of Nagara culture: temples, sculpture, inscriptions
🟢 Economic revival included increased use of gold coins.

🚜 Agriculture and Land Grants
🌾 Expansion of Agriculture
➡ Forests were cleared for cultivation, often using iron tools.
✔ Land was categorized and taxed.
✏ Note: Agricultural surplus supported cities and empires.

📜 Land Grants
🧾 Brahmanas and religious institutions were given land grants by kings.
✔ These grants were recorded on copper plates or stone inscriptions.
💡 Concept: These grants often included rights to revenue collection and even judicial authority.

🧩 Decoding the Past
🔍 Epigraphy and Its Challenges
➡ Epigraphy: study of inscriptions.
✔ Scripts used: Brahmi (widely used), Kharosthi, Tamil-Brahmi
✔ Languages: Prakrit, Sanskrit, Tamil
🧠 Difficulties: damaged inscriptions, multiple meanings, script decipherment
✏ Note: James Prinsep (1830s) deciphered Brahmi, unlocking Ashokan edicts.

🏺 Material Culture and Archaeology
➡ Pottery, tools, ornaments, sculpture help reconstruct social and economic life.
✔ Finds from sites like Taxila, Mathura, Rajgir show craft diversity
🟡 Limitations: Uneven preservation, interpretive gaps, incomplete records

📖 Source Box – Example Analysis
(Though we exclude box content for exams, students are encouraged to observe how inscriptions and archaeological details are used in interpreting history.)

🌟 Why This Lesson Matters 🌟
📜 This chapter is key to understanding:
✔ The emergence of political institutions and empires
✔ Growth of cities and urban economy
✔ Evolution of kingship, trade, and religion
✔ Historical research methods using inscriptions and artefacts
🌍 It connects India’s ancient foundations with its later developments and provides tools for reading the past with precision and care.

📝 Quick Recap: Memory Boost
🔹 Cities grew due to surplus agriculture and trade
🔹 Mahajanapadas were early political units
🔹 Magadha rose as a dominant kingdom
🔹 Mauryan Empire: first major imperial state
🔹 Ashoka’s Dhamma promoted moral governance
🔹 Prashastis and inscriptions reveal royal ideologies
🔹 Trade included both inland and overseas links
🔹 Agriculture expanded through land grants and forest clearing
🔹 Guilds regulated craft and trade activities
🔹 Gupta kings revived urban culture and divine kingship
🔹 Epigraphy, coins, and artefacts help decode ancient Indian history

📚 Summary (300 words)
This chapter explores the early historic phase of Indian history, focusing on the emergence of kingdoms, cities, and trade between 600 BCE and 600 CE.
🔹 The early urban centres like Pataliputra, Taxila, and Ujjayini rose due to surplus food production, trade, and administrative functions. The mahajanapadas (16 major states) formed the earliest political formations—some monarchies, others republics.

🔹 Magadha stood out due to strategic geography, iron resources, and strong rulers. The Mauryan Empire under Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka marked India’s first large-scale imperial structure. Ashoka’s inscriptions spread his ethical policy of Dhamma.

🔹 Craft production in cities included pottery, bead-making, and metal tools. Trade was supported by punch-marked coins and organized guilds (shrenis). Inland and overseas trade routes thrived, linking India with Rome and Central Asia.

🔹 Land revenue systems developed, and kings issued land grants to Brahmanas and temples, leading to new agrarian expansions. These grants often gave extensive rights to donees.

🔹 The Gupta Empire brought back prosperity and urban growth. Gupta kings took divine titles and issued prashastis. Inscriptions like the Prayaga Prashasti reveal the political ideology and conquests of rulers like Samudragupta.

🔹 Historians rely on archaeological findings, coins, inscriptions, and ancient texts to reconstruct this period. Deciphering Brahmi script by James Prinsep enabled access to Ashokan edicts, revolutionizing our understanding of early Indian history.
In essence, this lesson traces the transformation from tribal to territorial states, rural to urban economies, and highlights how material and textual sources together shape our knowledge of ancient India.

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QUESTIONS FROM TEXTBOOK

🔸 Q1. Discuss the evidence of craft production in Early Historic cities. In what ways is this different from the evidence from Harappan cities?
✅ Answer:
🪔 Evidence of craft production in Early Historic cities is derived from:
Archaeological findings: Terracotta figurines, pottery, beads, and ornaments have been excavated from sites like Rajghat, Mathura, and Arikamedu.
Literary sources: The Jatakas and Sangam literature describe various artisans like potters, weavers, and goldsmiths.
Inscriptional records: Guilds (shrenis) of artisans and merchants are mentioned in inscriptions and were prominent in urban economies.
🆚 Differences from Harappan cities:
In Harappan cities, production was likely state-controlled and standardized (e.g., weights, seals, beads).
In Early Historic cities, production became decentralized with the rise of guilds, and diversity in materials and techniques increased.
Use of metal tools and coinage became widespread in Early Historic cities.

🔹 Q2. Describe the salient features of mahajanapadas.
✅ Answer:
🏹 The mahajanapadas were powerful territorial states during the 6th century BCE. Key features include:
Territorial Boundaries: Each mahajanapada had defined territories and capitals, often fortified.
Governance: Two types:
Monarchical states: Like Magadha and Kosala.
Gana-sanghas (oligarchies): Like Vajji and Malla.
Standing armies and taxation: Kings maintained armies and collected taxes, particularly from agriculture and trade.
Fortification and urbanization: Capitals like Rajagriha and Ujjayini were fortified.
Agricultural expansion: Use of iron tools increased production.

🔸 Q3. How do historians reconstruct the lives of ordinary people?
✅ Answer:
📜 Reconstructing lives of common people is challenging due to limited sources. However, historians use:
Literary sources: Jatakas, Sangam poems, and Pali texts describe lives of peasants, traders, women, and artisans.
Archaeological evidence: Pottery, house remains, and tools from rural and urban sites provide clues to material life.
Inscriptions: Rarely mention ordinary people directly, but donations by women and traders show their social presence.
Coins and seals: Indicate widespread trade activity and participation of merchants.
Despite limitations, such sources help piece together daily life, economic roles, and societal positions of non-elite groups.

🔹 Q4. Compare and contrast the list of things given to the Pandyan chief (Source 3) with those produced in the village of Danguna (Source 8). Do you notice any similarities or differences?
✅ Answer:
📦 Source 3 (Gift to Pandyan Chief) includes items like ivory, gems, sandalwood, gold, fine cloth, fragrant oil—mostly luxury items from distant places, likely tribute or tax in kind.
🌾 Source 8 (Village of Danguna) lists products like paddy, sesame, mustard, lentils, and vegetables—basic agricultural produce meant for local use and revenue collection.
🆚 Comparison:
Similarities: Both reflect economic activities and surplus production.
Differences:
Source 3 highlights prestige goods and long-distance trade, while
Source 8 shows agrarian economy and local-level resource management.
This contrast reveals regional economic variations and the hierarchical flow of goods in society.

🔸 Q5. List some of the problems faced by epigraphists.
✅ Answer:
🪨 Epigraphists face several challenges in deciphering inscriptions:
Damaged inscriptions: Erosion, breakage, or missing parts hinder complete understanding.
Multiple scripts and languages: Inscriptions use Brahmi, Kharosthi, Tamil-Brahmi, and Prakrit, Sanskrit, Pali—requiring expertise in multiple linguistic traditions.
Symbolic meanings: Words or phrases may have contextual meanings not easily understood.
Limited content: Most inscriptions are brief and official, lacking personal or cultural detail.
Dating issues: Some inscriptions do not mention clear dates or rulers, making chronological placement difficult.
These problems limit the reconstruction of comprehensive historical narratives.

🔹 Q6. Discuss the main features of Mauryan administration. Which of these elements are evident in the Asokan inscriptions that you have studied?
✅ Answer:
🏛 Mauryan administration under rulers like Chandragupta and Ashoka was highly centralized and structured:
Centralized bureaucracy: Divided into departments (e.g., revenue, military, espionage).
Provinces and governors: Empire was divided into provinces with governors (often royal family members).
Espionage system: A network of spies ensured law and order.
Urban and rural officers: Officials like Rajukas and Pradesikas handled administration and justice.
Revenue system: Land tax was the main source.
📜 Asokan inscriptions reflect:
Appointment of Dhamma Mahamatras to spread moral values.
Instructions to Rajukas to ensure welfare and justice.
Concern for subjects’ health, animal protection, and religious tolerance.
Reference to roads, rest houses, and medical facilities—showing a welfare state outlook.

🔸 Q7. This is a statement made by one of the best-known epigraphists of the twentieth century, D.C. Sircar: “There is no aspect of life, culture and activities of the Indians that is not reflected in inscriptions.” Discuss.
✅ Answer:
📝 D.C. Sircar’s statement underscores the wide-ranging nature of inscriptions in India. Inscriptions reveal:
Political history: Edicts of Ashoka, Allahabad Pillar inscription (Samudragupta), copperplate grants, etc.
Religious life: Donations to Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu establishments.
Social structure: Mention of caste, occupation, women donors, guilds.
Economic aspects: Land grants, taxes, trade centers, guild activities.
Language and script evolution: From Brahmi to Nagari, Prakrit to Sanskrit.
Thus, inscriptions provide a multi-dimensional window into ancient Indian society, though their interpretation has limitations due to brevity and context.

🔹 Q8. Discuss the notions of kingship that developed in the post-Mauryan period.
✅ Answer:
👑 In the post-Mauryan period (2nd century BCE onwards), kingship became:
Divine and ritualized: Kings claimed divine origin or divine sanction (e.g., Kushana rulers titled themselves as “Devaputra”).
Heroic and universal conquest: Like Satavahanas and Shakas, rulers performed ashvamedha or used titles like “Maharaja” and “Chakravartin”.
Donor kingship: Royal patronage of religious institutions (especially Buddhist and Jain) increased to gain legitimacy.
Inscriptional glorification: Eulogistic inscriptions (prasastis) emphasized valor, lineage, and conquests.
This marked a shift from Mauryan welfare-oriented rule to more symbolic and legitimized power structures based on religious and cultural claims.

🔸 Q9. To what extent were agricultural practices transformed in the period under consideration?
✅ Answer:
🌾 Agriculture witnessed notable changes during this period:
Expansion into new regions: The Ganga valley, Deccan, and coastal areas were brought under cultivation.
Use of iron tools: Iron ploughshares, axes, and sickles improved productivity.
Irrigation development: Use of wells, tanks, and canals spread, especially in arid zones.
Land grants: Brahmanas and officials were granted land, changing land ownership and control.
Crop diversification: Apart from rice and wheat, pulses, sesame, mustard, and cotton were cultivated.
However, the transformation was not uniform; many regions still depended on monsoon-based subsistence farming. The changes laid the foundation for agrarian expansion and surplus generation.

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OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMS

(CBSE MODEL QUESTIONS PAPER)

ESPECIALLY MADE FROM THIS LESSON ONLY

Q1. Who composed the Prashasti of Samudragupta?
(A) Banabhatta
(B) Kalidasa
(C) Harisena
(D) Vishakhadatta
Answer: (C) Harisena

Q2. The term ‘Janapada’ literally means:
(A) King’s residence
(B) Weapon storage
(C) Place where the tribe sets its foot
(D) Tax collection center
Answer: (C) Place where the tribe sets its foot

Q3. Match the following correctly:
Mahajanapadas — (a) 6th century BCE
Satavahana Dynasty — (b) 1st century BCE
Harappan Civilization — (c) 2600 BCE
Options:
(A) 1-a, 2-b, 3-c
(B) 1-b, 2-a, 3-c
(C) 1-a, 2-c, 3-b
(D) 1-c, 2-a, 3-b
Answer: (A) 1-a, 2-b, 3-c

Q4. Which inscription mentions Ashoka’s dhamma policies?
(A) Rummindei Pillar Edict
(B) Junagadh Inscription
(C) Hathigumpha Inscription
(D) Nasik Inscription
Answer: (A) Rummindei Pillar Edict

Q5. Which of the following is a Prakrit text?
(A) Arthashastra
(B) Mahabharata
(C) Digha Nikaya
(D) Kalpasutra
Answer: (C) Digha Nikaya

Q6. Assertion (A): The Mauryan empire was a highly centralised state.
Reason (R): The Arthashastra gives detailed instructions on centralised administration.
Options:
(A) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
(B) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
(C) A is true but R is false
(D) A is false but R is true
Answer: (A) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A

Q7. Who was the founder of the Maurya Empire?
Answer: Chandragupta Maurya

Q8. Which important Buddhist text is a source of Mauryan history?
Answer: Ashokan inscriptions and the Digha Nikaya

Q9. Name any one town mentioned in the Arthashastra.
Answer: Pataliputra

Q10. Who composed the Arthashastra?
(A) Kautilya
(B) Patanjali
(C) Banabhatta
(D) Panini
Answer: (A) Kautilya

Q11. What term did Ashoka use to define his moral teachings?
Answer: Dhamma

Q12. Which one of these was not a Mahajanapada?
(A) Magadha
(B) Kuru
(C) Avanti
(D) Harappa
Answer: (D) Harappa

Q13. What is the meaning of the term ‘Gahapati’?
Answer: The head of a household, often a landowner.

Q14. Assertion (A): Land grants were given to Brahmanas in post-Mauryan times.
Reason (R): Kings wanted to promote agriculture and support religious functionaries.
Options:
(A) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
(B) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A
(C) A is true but R is false
(D) A is false but R is true
Answer: (A) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A

Q15. Which ruler issued the Hathigumpha inscription?
Answer: Kharavela

Q16. Which of the following best describes the term ‘Prashasti’?
(A) Tax record
(B) Royal eulogy
(C) Land grant
(D) Code of law
Answer: (B) Royal eulogy

Q17. Name any two sources used to reconstruct the history of the Mauryas.
Answer: Arthashastra and Ashokan inscriptions

Q18. Case-Based MCQ
Read the following source and answer the question:
“Samudragupta was a great conqueror and was praised by his court poet Harisena in the Allahabad Pillar Inscription. He defeated many rulers across the Indian subcontinent and performed Ashvamedha sacrifices to proclaim his sovereignty.”
What can be inferred about Samudragupta’s rule?
(A) He preferred peace over war
(B) He discouraged sacrifices
(C) He expanded the empire through conquest
(D) He ruled only in the north-western region
Answer: (C) He expanded the empire through conquest

SECTION B (2 Marks Each)
Q19. Mention any two features of the Mauryan administration as described in the Arthashastra.
Answer:
🔹 The Mauryan administration was highly centralised, with the king at the apex of power.
🔹 It included a well-organised bureaucracy with departments like espionage, taxation, and revenue collection. The Arthashastra also mentions officials such as amatyas (ministers) and rajukas (revenue officers).

Q20. What are inscriptions? How are they important for the reconstruction of history?
Answer:
🔹 Inscriptions are writings engraved on hard surfaces such as stone, metal, or terracotta.
🔹 They are primary sources of history, revealing details about kingship, administration, land grants, religious practices, and social structure of early states.

Q21. List any two reasons why Magadha emerged as a powerful Mahajanapada.
Answer:
🔹 Magadha had fertile plains and rich iron ore deposits which helped in agriculture and warfare.
🔹 Its strategic location near rivers like Ganga facilitated trade, communication, and expansion.

Q22. Differentiate between ‘Prashasti’ and ‘Inscription’.
Answer:
🔹 Prashasti is a eulogy composed in praise of a ruler, often poetic and idealised.
🔹 An Inscription can be any formal text engraved in stone or metal, which may include royal orders, land grants, or edicts.

Q23. What is the importance of land grants in understanding early Indian polity and economy?
Answer:
🔹 Land grants show that kings used land distribution to maintain alliances with Brahmanas or officials.
🔹 They reveal the decentralisation of power and the expansion of agriculture into forested areas.

SECTION C (3 Marks Each)
Q24. Explain the significance of the Sanchi stupa as an archaeological source for understanding the Mauryan period.
Answer:
🔹 The Sanchi stupa, originally commissioned by Ashoka, provides evidence of Mauryan patronage of Buddhism.
🔹 The inscriptions and carvings depict scenes from Jataka tales and Buddhist rituals.
🔹 It reflects the architectural and artistic excellence and the religious environment of that time.

Q25. Describe any three ways in which inscriptions help us understand the lives of ordinary people.
Answer:
🔹 Inscriptions record donations by commoners like merchants, potters, and craftsmen to religious institutions.
🔹 Some inscriptions mention Gahapatis (householders), indicating economic classes.
🔹 They show local language usage and social diversity, indicating the spread of literacy beyond elite classes.

Q26. What does the evidence from land grant inscriptions suggest about rural economy and society?
Answer:
🔹 Land grants to Brahmanas or religious institutions were often tax-free and hereditary.
🔹 These grants reveal expansion of agriculture into forested lands with the help of peasants or slaves.
🔹 Villages were important economic units, and land ownership was a key source of status.

Q27. What methods do historians use to classify inscriptions and study them?
Answer:
🔹 Epigraphists study script (palaeography), language, and context to classify inscriptions.
🔹 Inscriptions are categorised into Prashastis, land grants, religious donations, etc.
🔹 Cross-referencing with literary sources and archaeological evidence helps validate interpretations.

Q28. Explain how archaeological findings have helped in reconstructing the economic activities of early towns.
Answer:
🔹 Artefacts like pottery, coins, tools, and remains of kilns indicate craft production and trade.
🔹 Urban layouts with market areas and storage facilities show organised commercial activity.
🔹 Findings like weights, seals, and imported goods reflect long-distance trade networks and occupational specialisation.

Q29. Read the passage and answer the questions that follow:
“Land grants were recorded on copper plates which were given to donees and were sometimes accompanied by stone inscriptions. Many of these records were in Sanskrit, using Brahmi script, and provided details such as the village granted, its boundaries, exemption from tax, and rights over the produce.”
(a) What kind of information do copper plate inscriptions provide?
(b) What does the use of Sanskrit and Brahmi script suggest?
(c) What do tax exemptions imply about early Indian economy?
(d) How do these records help us understand political power?
Answer:
(a) Copper plates provide details of land grants such as the beneficiary, location, boundaries, and privileges.
(b) It suggests that Sanskrit was the elite administrative language and Brahmi was the common script.
(c) Tax exemptions show the king’s authority to allocate economic privileges, often to religious or learned classes.
(d) These records demonstrate how kings consolidated power through patronage, asserting legitimacy over land and subjects.

Q30. Read the excerpt and answer the questions:
“The Allahabad Pillar Inscription composed by Harisena describes Samudragupta as a brave conqueror, an able administrator, and a patron of art. It refers to his campaigns in both northern and southern India.”
(a) Who was Harisena and why is his account important?
(b) What aspects of Samudragupta’s rule are highlighted?
(c) Why is the inscription a valuable historical source?
(d) How did Samudragupta legitimise his power?
Answer:
(a) Harisena was Samudragupta’s court poet; his Prashasti offers detailed praise of the ruler.
(b) His military conquests, administrative efficiency, and support for culture and religion are highlighted.
(c) It is a primary source offering insight into political ideology, conquests, and royal virtues.
(d) Through military campaigns, performance of Ashvamedha yajna, and poetic eulogies, he legitimised imperial authority.

Q31. Case Study:
“Archaeologists found evidence of punch-marked coins, Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW), and urban layouts during excavations at early historic sites.”
(a) What are punch-marked coins and what do they indicate?
(b) How does NBPW help in dating urban sites?
(c) What do urban layouts tell us about ancient Indian cities?
(d) Mention one site where such evidence has been found.
Answer:
(a) Punch-marked coins were early metallic currency with stamped symbols, indicating use of money and trade.
(b) NBPW was a luxury item used between 6th–2nd century BCE, thus dating sites accordingly.
(c) Urban layouts show town planning, social zoning, and craft specialization.
(d) Evidence of these has been found at sites like Ujjayini, Pataliputra, and Kaushambi.

SECTION E (5 Marks Each – Long Answer Questions)

Q32. Explain the main features of the Mauryan administration. How are these reflected in Ashokan inscriptions?
Answer:
🔹 The Mauryan administration was hierarchical and centralised, as described in the Arthashastra.
🔹 The king was the supreme authority with a council of ministers (mantriparishad).
🔹 Administrative divisions included provinces (janapadas), districts (vishyas), and villages.
🔹 Specialized officials like rajukas (judicial), amatyas (finance), and yuktas (revenue) were appointed.
🔹 A large standing army and espionage system ensured control.
📌 Reflection in Ashokan Inscriptions:
✔ Inscriptions mention Dhamma Mahamatras who oversaw moral conduct.
✔ Ashoka refers to officers working for welfare of prisoners, animals, and commoners.
✔ Inscriptions in regional languages show administrative reach across the empire.
✔ Orders were publicly inscribed, ensuring transparency and wide communication.

Q33. Discuss the sources historians use to reconstruct the history of the Mauryan Empire. How do they complement each other?
Answer:
🔹 Literary sources:
– Arthashastra by Kautilya details administration, economy, and espionage.
– Buddhist texts like the Digha Nikaya narrate the life of Ashoka and spread of Buddhism.
🔹 Inscriptions:
– Ashokan inscriptions across the subcontinent declare Dhamma policies and provide geographic evidence of empire’s extent.
🔹 Archaeological sources:
– Remains of buildings at Pataliputra, punch-marked coins, and the Sanchi Stupa provide material proof of Mauryan grandeur.
🔹 Foreign accounts:
– Megasthenes’ Indica offers Greek perspectives on Indian polity, economy, and society.
💡 These sources corroborate and balance each other — while inscriptions offer factual records, literary texts give ideological and ethical frameworks.

Q34. How did the emergence of towns during the 6th century BCE mark a shift in political and economic life in ancient India?
Answer:
🟢 Political Shift:
– Towns emerged as administrative centres for Mahajanapadas and later empires like Mauryas.
– Rulers could control hinterlands, collect taxes, and station troops in these urban areas.
🟡 Economic Shift:
– Craft production increased with specialised artisans (e.g., potters, weavers, smiths).
– Markets developed; use of punch-marked coins facilitated transactions.
– Trade routes, both inland and maritime, expanded.
🔴 Urbanisation:
– Planned layouts, drainage systems, and brick houses show civic awareness.
– Items like NBPW indicate luxury consumption and cultural sophistication.
🔵 Religious Activity:
– Urban patrons supported religious institutions through donations, seen in inscriptions and architectural remains.
✅ Thus, towns became vibrant centres of administration, economy, and culture — a hallmark of early Indian civilisation.

Q35. How did kingship evolve after the Mauryan Empire? Explain with reference to post-Mauryan inscriptions and ideas of divine rule.
Answer:
🔹 After the Mauryas, kingship became more decentralised, and local rulers like Satavahanas, Kushanas, and Guptas gained prominence.
🔹 New features of kingship:
– Emphasis on divine origin of kings (e.g., Kushanas called themselves sons of God).
– Kings issued land grants to Brahmanas and monasteries to gain legitimacy.
🔹 Inscriptions as evidence:
– Prashastis (e.g., Allahabad Pillar) praised rulers as brave, generous, and divine.
– Copper plate land grants mention royal lineage, legitimacy, and moral qualities.
🔹 Performative legitimacy:
– Ashvamedha yajnas and coin iconography (e.g., haloed figures) reinforced sacred status.
🔹 Administrative changes:
– Less centralisation, more delegation to feudatories and local chieftains.
✅ Kingship post-Maurya evolved from pragmatic governance to ideologically loaded divine rule, as seen in literature, inscriptions, and rituals.

QUESTIONS FROM COMPETITION EXAMS

🔵 Q1. The Mauryan Empire was established by:
(A) Chandragupta Maurya
(B) Ashoka
(C) Bindusara
(D) Bimbisara
✅ Answer: (A) Chandragupta Maurya
📅 Exam: UPSC Prelims 2016
📝 Explanation: Chandragupta founded the Mauryan dynasty.
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🔵 Q2. The Arthashastra was authored by:
(A) Kautilya
(B) Chanakya
(C) Vishnugupta
(D) All of these
✅ Answer: (D) All of these
📅 Exam: SSC CHSL 2015
📝 Explanation: All names refer to the same person.
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🔵 Q3. The language of Ashokan inscriptions is mainly:
(A) Sanskrit
(B) Tamil
(C) Pali-Prakrit
(D) Persian
✅ Answer: (C) Pali-Prakrit
📅 Exam: SSC CGL 2016
📝 Explanation: Inscriptions used local Prakrits.
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🔵 Q4. Ashoka called himself ‘Devanampiya Piyadasi’ meaning:
(A) King of Gods
(B) Beloved of the Gods
(C) Destroyer of Enemies
(D) Emperor of Earth
✅ Answer: (B) Beloved of the Gods
📅 Exam: UPSC Prelims 2014
📝 Explanation: Found in inscriptions.
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🔵 Q5. The capital of Ashoka’s Empire was:
(A) Pataliputra
(B) Taxila
(C) Ujjain
(D) Rajgriha
✅ Answer: (A) Pataliputra
📅 Exam: SSC CPO 2017
📝 Explanation: Capital during Mauryan rule.
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🔵 Q6. Megasthenes wrote:
(A) Indica
(B) Arthashastra
(C) Rajatarangini
(D) Purana
✅ Answer: (A) Indica
📅 Exam: SSC CGL 2017
📝 Explanation: Account on Mauryan India.
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🔵 Q7. The earliest coins used in India were:
(A) Punch-marked
(B) Gupta gold coins
(C) Silver dinars
(D) Copper paise
✅ Answer: (A) Punch-marked
📅 Exam: SSC MTS 2015
📝 Explanation: Used in Mahajanapadas.
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🔵 Q8. The Satavahanas ruled over:
(A) North India
(B) Deccan
(C) Kashmir
(D) Bengal
✅ Answer: (B) Deccan
📅 Exam: UPSC Prelims 2015
📝 Explanation: Strong Deccan power.
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🔵 Q9. Land grants by kings were meant to:
(A) Reward warriors
(B) Encourage agriculture
(C) Support Brahmanas
(D) Build temples
✅ Answer: (C) Support Brahmanas
📅 Exam: SSC CHSL 2016
📝 Explanation: Brahmanical dominance strengthened.
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🔵 Q10. The Saptamatrikas are linked to:
(A) Agriculture
(B) Female deities
(C) Trade guilds
(D) Mauryan administration
✅ Answer: (B) Female deities
📅 Exam: SSC JE 2017
📝 Explanation: Represent seven mothers in belief.
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🔵 Q11. Hiuen Tsang visited India during the reign of:
(A) Harsha
(B) Ashoka
(C) Samudragupta
(D) Chandragupta I
✅ Answer: (A) Harsha
📅 Exam: SSC CGL 2015
📝 Explanation: Documented Harsha’s reign.
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🔵 Q12. The Prayag Prashasti praises:
(A) Samudragupta
(B) Chandragupta
(C) Harsha
(D) Bimbisara
✅ Answer: (A) Samudragupta
📅 Exam: SSC CPO 2016
📝 Explanation: Describes Samudragupta’s achievements.
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🔵 Q13. Harshacharita was written by:
(A) Banabhatta
(B) Kalhana
(C) Kalidasa
(D) Megasthenes
✅ Answer: (A) Banabhatta
📅 Exam: SSC CHSL 2017
📝 Explanation: Biography of Harsha.
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🔵 Q14. Gupta kings issued mostly:
(A) Gold coins
(B) Copper coins
(C) Silver coins
(D) Iron coins
✅ Answer: (A) Gold coins
📅 Exam: SSC CGL 2016
📝 Explanation: Symbol of prosperity.
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🔵 Q15. The term ‘Mahajanapada’ is linked to:
(A) Small villages
(B) Early republics
(C) Large states
(D) Vedic sacrifice
✅ Answer: (C) Large states
📅 Exam: UPSC Prelims 2017
📝 Explanation: 16 Mahajanapadas existed.
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🔵 Q16. Fa-Hien came to India during:
(A) Harsha
(B) Chandragupta II
(C) Ashoka
(D) Samudragupta
✅ Answer: (B) Chandragupta II
📅 Exam: SSC CHSL 2015
📝 Explanation: Documented Gupta society.
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🔵 Q17. Guilds (Shrenis) were:
(A) Warrior groups
(B) Trade associations
(C) Religious bodies
(D) Political parties
✅ Answer: (B) Trade associations
📅 Exam: SSC MTS 2017
📝 Explanation: Controlled trade and crafts.
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🔵 Q18. The Gupta period is famous for:
(A) Decline of trade
(B) Rise of Sanskrit literature
(C) Greek invasions
(D) Iron age tools
✅ Answer: (B) Rise of Sanskrit literature
📅 Exam: SSC CGL 2017
📝 Explanation: Classical Sanskrit works flourished.
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🔵 Q19. Ashokan edicts were written on:
(A) Palm leaves
(B) Rocks and pillars
(C) Clay tablets
(D) Bamboo scrolls
✅ Answer: (B) Rocks and pillars
📅 Exam: SSC CHSL 2016
📝 Explanation: Found across empire.
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🔵 Q20. Buddha’s teachings spread mostly through:
(A) Temples
(B) Edicts
(C) Councils
(D) Sanghas
✅ Answer: (D) Sanghas
📅 Exam: SSC GD 2018
📝 Explanation: Monastic communities spread Buddhism.