Class 12 : History (English) – Lesson 1. Bricks, Beads and Bones

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On June 25, 2025

EXPLANATION AND SUMMARY

🟢 Introduction to the Harappan Civilisation
💡 Concept: One of the world’s earliest urban civilizations, the Harappan Civilisation (also called the Indus Valley Civilisation), flourished in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent between 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE.

🔵 Extent: Covered parts of present-day Pakistan, and north-western India — from Baluchistan to Gujarat, and from Jammu to the Makran coast.

✔️ Major cities: Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira, Kalibangan, Lothal.
➡️ Archaeological significance: It’s known mostly through material remains like bricks, seals, beads, ornaments, and bones—hence the chapter’s name.

🔵 1.

Discovery of the Civilization
✏️ Note: The civilisation was first discovered when excavations were conducted in the 1920s at Harappa (now in Pakistan) and Mohenjodaro.

🧠 Initial Misunderstanding: These sites were not initially understood as ancient cities. Bricks from the ruins were used in laying the railway line between Lahore and Karachi!

🟡 John Marshall, Director-General of the ASI, played a key role in early documentation but was criticized later for not using stratigraphy correctly (layer-wise excavation).

🟢 2.

The Significance of Settlements
✔️ Harappan settlements were of various sizes: large urban centres (like Mohenjodaro), towns (like Kalibangan), and small villages.

💡 Urban Planning: Streets laid out in a grid pattern; advanced drainage systems; public baths like the Great Bath of Mohenjodaro.

🧱 Buildings used baked and sun-dried bricks. Use of standardized brick size indicated centralized planning.
🌿 Agricultural settlements like those in Gujarat (e.g., Dholavira) show different town planning but were part of the same civilization.

🔵 3.

Subsistence and Economy
🌾 Agriculture: Crops included wheat, barley, pulses, and dates. Evidence of ploughed fields found in Kalibangan.
💧 Irrigation: In the semi-arid areas, irrigation was crucial. Canals and wells were used.
🐄 Domesticated animals: Cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats. Evidence of camels and elephants.
💡 Real-life Link: Animal domestication and crop rotation techniques from Harappan times are reflected in rural Indian practices even today.

🟡 4.

Crafts and Artisans
💠 Bead-making: Cities like Lothal were centres for bead-making, using materials like carnelian, faience, shell, and terracotta.
🧱 Craft Specialization:
Terracotta toy carts
Copper tools
Seals with animal motifs

💡 Concept: Artisans worked in specialized areas, possibly under patronage. Evidence of furnaces, drills, and kilns found in settlements.
🔴 A variety of materials – semi-precious stones, shells, metals – suggest a flourishing economy and craft diversity.

🟢 5.

Trade and Exchange Networks
⚡ Harappans traded both locally and over long distances.
📦 Evidence:
Marine shells from distant coasts found in inland towns.
Seals and weights suggest standardization in trade.
Objects like lapis lazuli hint at trade with Afghanistan and Iran.
🛳️ Lothal: Located near a dockyard – indicates maritime trade. Possible trade with Mesopotamia (referred to them as Meluhha).

🔵 6.

Social and Economic Differences
💡 How do we know?
Burials show variations: Some had pots, ornaments, others had none.
House sizes: One-room huts vs. large multi-room houses.
🧠 Concept: Not all people had access to luxuries or large residences. A class structure likely existed.
✔️ Harappan society, though not entirely egalitarian, was well-organized with evidence of elite control (e.g., standard weights, seals).

🟡 7.

Political Organisation
✏️ Note: No large-scale evidence of palaces or kings.
🧱 The use of standardized bricks, seals, and weights suggests a centralized system or at least coordinated authority.
💡 Concept: Power may have rested with groups like priests, merchants, or city elites rather than hereditary kings.

🟢 8.

Religious Beliefs and Practices
🕉️ Terracotta figurines, seals, and fire altars provide clues about religious beliefs.
Examples:
Female figurines – interpreted as mother goddesses.
Pipal tree depicted on seals – possibly sacred.
Animal motifs – may have had religious significance.
⚱️ Burials suggest belief in an afterlife but not uniform religious practices across settlements.

🔴 9.

Script and Seals
💠 Harappan script: Undeciphered till date. Mostly found on seals.
🔍 Features:
Short inscriptions
Pictographic signs
Written from right to left (sometimes bidirectional)
🧠 Seals: Used possibly for trade, ownership, or official stamps.
✏️ Note: Many seals feature unicorns, bulls – symbolism not yet fully understood.

🟢 10.

The Mystery of the End
⚡ By 1900 BCE, major cities declined.
Possible reasons:
Drying up of rivers (like Ghaggar-Hakra)
Floods (evidence in Mohenjodaro)
Deforestation and overuse of resources
Shifts in trade routes
💡 Concept: No single cause explains the decline – it was a gradual process, not sudden destruction.

🟡 11.

Rediscovering Harappa – The Role of Archaeology
🔍 Modern archaeology uses:
Excavation
Stratigraphy
Radiocarbon dating
Analysis of materials and contexts
🧠 Importance of stratigraphy: Helped identify chronological layers of occupation at a site.
💡 Real-life Link: Understanding ancient civilizations helps us protect heritage and learn sustainable practices.

🔵 12.

Harappa’s Legacy
✔️ Harappan culture had no obvious direct continuation, but:
Certain craft styles (bead-making, terracotta work) survived.
Agricultural techniques persisted.
Symbols and cultural practices influenced later Indian traditions.
🧠 While the script remains undeciphered, Harappan cities offer models of early urban planning and sustainable living.

🌟 Why This Lesson Matters
🧠 Bricks, Beads and Bones gives us a glimpse into: ➡️ The roots of urban civilisation in the Indian subcontinent
➡️ How ancient people lived, traded, and believed
➡️ The power of archaeology to reconstruct silent pasts
📚 It reminds us that great civilizations thrived long before modern tools, and their ingenuity still inspires city planning, sustainable living, and cultural unity.

📝 Quick Recap:
🔵 Harappan Civilisation flourished between 2600–1900 BCE.
🟢 Key sites: Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Lothal, Kalibangan, Dholavira.
🔴 Urban planning: Grid system, drainage, Great Bath.
🟡 Economy: Agriculture, trade (local & overseas), crafts.
🧠 Religion: Seals, female figurines, sacred trees.
⚡ Decline: Gradual – environmental and economic factors.
📜 Rediscovered through archaeology in the 20th century.

🧾 Summary (≈300 words)
🔹 The Harappan Civilization (2600–1900 BCE), also known as the Indus Valley Civilisation, was one of the earliest urban civilizations in the world.
🔹 Major sites like Harappa and Mohenjodaro reveal well-planned cities with straight roads, drainage systems, and standardized bricks, reflecting advanced town planning.

🔹 People practised agriculture (wheat, barley), domesticated animals (cattle, sheep), and used irrigation systems in semi-arid areas.
🔹 Craft production was significant—artisans made beads, terracotta figurines, seals, and copper tools. Lothal emerged as a major craft and trade centre with a dockyard.

🔹 Trade was both internal and long-distance. Harappans imported materials like lapis lazuli and marine shells. There is evidence of contact with Mesopotamia (Meluhha).
🔹 Social distinctions existed—seen in variations in house sizes and burial items. However, there’s no evidence of palaces or kings, suggesting a different political structure.

🔹 Religion likely included mother goddess worship, tree worship, and reverence for animals. Seals and figurines offer limited insights into beliefs.
🔹 The Harappan script remains undeciphered. Most inscriptions were brief, found on seals and other objects.
🔹 The decline of the Harappan cities around 1900 BCE might have been due to environmental changes, floods, and shifts in trade patterns.

🔹 Rediscovery of the civilisation in the 1920s through archaeological excavation helped reconstruct its legacy. Modern methods like radiocarbon dating and stratigraphy advanced our understanding.
🔹 Though the civilization eventually faded, some of its cultural and technological practices continued to influence later Indian traditions.

📘 Overall, this chapter reveals the richness of ancient urban life, economic systems, and social organisation in early India—making it a foundational topic for understanding the subcontinent’s historical roots.

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QUESTIONS FROM TEXTBOOK

Question 1: List the items of food available to people in Harappan cities. Identify the groups who would have provided these.
✅ Answer: ✔️ Food Items:
🌾 Cereals like wheat, barley, millet, lentils, and chickpeas
🐟 Fish and other aquatic food
🥛 Milk and milk products
🥩 Meat of cattle, pigs, goats, and sheep
🐔 Domestic birds like fowl
🌴 Fruits such as dates
✔️ Providers:
👨‍🌾 Farmers: Grew cereals and pulses
🐄 Herders: Supplied milk and meat
🐟 Fisherfolk: Brought aquatic resources
👩‍🍳 Urban dwellers: Cooked and consumed prepared food
This variety of food reflects a well-developed agriculture-based economy with support from animal rearing and trade.

Question 2: How do archaeologists trace socio-economic differences in Harappan society? What are the differences that they notice?
✅ Answer: ✔️ Traces of Socio-Economic Differences:
🏠 House size and quality: Large houses with courtyards vs. one-room huts
⚱️ Burial goods: Rich graves had ornaments, pottery; poor graves were simple
💍 Material objects: Use of gold, silver, semi-precious stones vs. terracotta
✔️ Inferences:
Elite groups lived in spacious homes with private wells
Commoners used basic materials and lived in compact spaces
Craft specialists may have lived in separate quarters
These observations reveal social stratification and economic disparity within the Harappan society.

Question 3: Would you agree that the drainage system in Harappan cities indicates town planning? Give reasons for your answer.
✅ Answer: Yes, the drainage system reflects highly planned urban architecture.
✔️ Key Features:
🏠 Every house had its own drainage outlet
🌊 Drains were covered, made of brick, and ran along roads
🔍 Regular inspection holes were provided
🧼 Wastewater from bathrooms and kitchens connected to main drains
These aspects highlight a systematic design with provisions for hygiene and civic management. Such coordination proves strong planning and centralized authority in Harappan towns.

Question 4: List the materials used to make beads in the Harappan civilisation. Describe the process by which any one kind of bead was made.
✅ Answer: ✔️ Materials Used:
💠 Semi-precious stones like carnelian, agate, lapis lazuli
🐚 Shell, copper, gold, faience, terracotta, steatite
✔️ Example – Carnelian Bead Making:
🔥 The stone was heated to get a vibrant red color
✂️ Then cut, shaped using tools
🕳️ Holes were drilled using fine drills and sand
✨ Finally, beads were polished for finishing
This process shows advanced craftsmanship and attention to aesthetic appeal in Harappan culture.

Question 5: Look at Fig. 1.30 and describe what you see. How is the body placed? What are the objects placed near it? Are there any artefacts on the body? Do these indicate the sex of the skeleton?
✅ Answer: ✔️ Visual Description:
The body is placed in a north-south orientation
💀 Skeleton lies extended; head facing north
⚱️ Objects such as pottery, ornaments, and tools are placed near it
📿 Some artefacts may be on the body like bangles or beads
✔️ Inference:
Presence of ornaments does not clearly indicate gender
Both men and women could wear similar items
Archaeologists avoid gender assumptions based only on grave goods
Thus, the burial shows ritual significance, but scientific analysis is required to determine sex.

📝 Write a short essay (about 500 words)

Question 6: Describe some of the distinctive features of Mohenjodaro.
✅ Answer: Mohenjodaro was a remarkable urban centre of the Harappan civilisation. Its layout reveals careful town planning and high civic awareness.
✔️ 1. Urban Layout:
Divided into Citadel (west) and Lower Town (east)
🧱 Wide streets in grid pattern with right-angled intersections
Houses built with uniform, baked bricks
✔️ 2. The Great Bath:
Public structure with watertight tank, stairs, and drainage
Likely used for ritual bathing, showing concern for cleanliness
✔️ 3. Drainage & Water System:
Covered drains along roads
Individual house drains connected to main system
Presence of private and public wells
✔️ 4. Residential Buildings:
Homes had courtyards, bathrooms, and staircases
Indicate multi-storied buildings and urban lifestyle
✔️ 5. Granary and Storehouses:
Large storage buildings possibly for grain or trade goods
Suggest central control and resource management
✔️ 6. Artistic Finds:
Famous artifacts like “Dancing Girl” (bronze) and “Priest King” (steatite)
Seals with animal motifs, script-like symbols found in abundance
✔️ 7. Absence of Temples:
No palaces or temples discovered
Implies non-theocratic or egalitarian political structure
In conclusion, Mohenjodaro reflects an advanced civilisation with well-developed civic infrastructure, trade, art, and planning.

Question 7: List the raw materials required for craft production in the Harappan civilisation and discuss how these might have been obtained.
✅ Answer: ✔️ Raw Materials Used:
🪨 Stones: Carnelian, agate, lapis lazuli, steatite
🐚 Shells, bones, ivory
🪙 Metals: Copper, gold, silver
🧱 Clay, faience, and terracotta
🧵 Cotton and wool for textiles
✔️ Sources:
🏔️ Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan
🏜️ Copper from Rajasthan and Baluchistan
🌊 Shells from coastal Gujarat and Makran coast
🌳 Ivory possibly from central India
✔️ Acquisition Methods:
Through long-distance trade networks (land and sea)
Caravan routes, ox-carts, and boats used
Some materials may have been imported from Mesopotamia
This interconnected economy reflects specialised craft production and a well-established resource exchange system.

Question 8: Discuss how archaeologists reconstruct the past.
✅ Answer: Archaeologists follow a systematic and scientific process to reconstruct ancient societies:
✔️ 1. Study of Material Remains:
Artifacts like tools, pottery, beads, seals, ornaments give clues
Building layout, streets, and public structures inform urban design
✔️ 2. Stratigraphy:
Layers of soil help establish chronology
Lower layers are older; upper ones are more recent
✔️ 3. Typology:
Artifacts are grouped based on shape, material, design
This helps compare cultural and technological changes
✔️ 4. Scientific Techniques:
Carbon dating for organic remains
Isotope analysis of bones and teeth for diet
DNA analysis to find ancestry and diseases
✔️ 5. Contextual and Comparative Analysis:
Comparisons with Mesopotamian texts or similar cultures
Mapping trade, craft, urbanism patterns
✔️ 6. Interpretation and Hypotheses:
Based on evidence patterns, historians develop theories
Harappan script remains undeciphered, so inference is crucial
Thus, archaeology involves a blend of evidence, science, and logic to recreate the picture of the past.

Question 9: Discuss the functions that may have been performed by rulers in Harappan society.
✅ Answer: Though no definitive palace or kingly artefact has been found, certain elements suggest a centralised ruling authority.
✔️ Probable Functions of Rulers:
📐 Urban planning: Grid layouts, drainage, public structures
📦 Storage and distribution: Control over granaries and surplus
📜 Standardisation: Ensured uniform weights, measures, bricks
🛳️ Trade regulation: Managed local and overseas exchange
🧱 Craft production oversight: Supervision of skilled work
🛡️ Security and law: Maintained civic discipline
✔️ Evidence:
Uniformity across cities suggests a central plan
Seals and weights point to administrative control
Large public structures like Great Bath imply organisation
In conclusion, Harappan rulers likely served as administrators, planners, and regulators, enabling one of the world’s earliest urban civilisations to thrive.

OTHER IMPORTANT QUESTIONS FOR EXAMS

(CBSE MODEL QUESTIONS PAPER)

ESPECIALLY MADE FROM THIS LESSON ONLY

Q1. Which of the following sites was first to be excavated in the 1920s?
(A) Lothal
(B) Kalibangan
(C) Harappa
(D) Dholavira
Answer: (C) Harappa

Q2. The Great Bath has been discovered at which of the following sites?
(A) Harappa
(B) Dholavira
(C) Mohenjodaro
(D) Rakhigarhi
Answer: (C) Mohenjodaro

Q3. Which of the following materials was commonly used to make Harappan seals?
(A) Terracotta
(B) Steatite
(C) Wood
(D) Bronze
Answer: (B) Steatite

Q4. Assertion (A): Harappan cities had excellent drainage systems.
Reason (R): The streets in Harappan cities were unplanned and irregular.
(A) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(B) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A
(C) A is true but R is false
(D) A is false but R is true
Answer: (C) A is true but R is false

Q5. Which of the following sites is located in Gujarat?
(A) Harappa
(B) Kalibangan
(C) Dholavira
(D) Ropar
Answer: (C) Dholavira

Q6. The Harappan script is:
(A) Alphabetic
(B) Pictographic
(C) Numerical
(D) Syllabic
Answer: (B) Pictographic

Q7. Who was the Director-General of ASI when Harappa was discovered?
(A) Mortimer Wheeler
(B) John Marshall
(C) Alexander Cunningham
(D) Dayaram Sahni
Answer: (B) John Marshall

Q8. What was the main crop cultivated at Harappan sites?
(A) Rice
(B) Barley
(C) Sugarcane
(D) Maize
Answer: (B) Barley

Q9. Which of the following is true about Harappan weights?
(A) They followed no standard
(B) Made of iron
(C) Based on binary and decimal system
(D) Found only in Dholavira
Answer: (C) Based on binary and decimal system

Q10. Case-Based MCQ:
Read the passage and answer the question:
“Many Harappan settlements were located near sources of raw materials such as stone, metal ores, and shell.”
What does this imply about the Harappan economy?
(A) They did not engage in trade
(B) Their economy was resource-based and localized
(C) They avoided using natural resources
(D) Their economy was primarily religious
Answer: (B) Their economy was resource-based and localized

Q11. Which among these was NOT used by the Harappans to make ornaments?
(A) Gold
(B) Faience
(C) Platinum
(D) Shell
Answer: (C) Platinum

Q12. Which of the following best describes the term “faience”?
(A) A type of clay
(B) A semi-precious stone
(C) A material made from ground sand and colour
(D) A type of food grain
Answer: (C) A material made from ground sand and colour

Q13. Which of the following animals is most commonly depicted on Harappan seals?
(A) Cow
(B) Unicorn
(C) Horse
(D) Deer
Answer: (B) Unicorn

Q14. What is the main reason why the Harappan script has not been deciphered yet?
(A) It is in Sanskrit
(B) It is carved on palm leaves
(C) Inscriptions are too short
(D) Too many variants exist
Answer: (C) Inscriptions are too short

Q15. Assertion (A): The Harappans worshipped only male gods.
Reason (R): Many female figurines interpreted as mother goddesses have been found.
(A) Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A
(B) Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A
(C) A is false but R is true
(D) Both A and R are false
Answer: (C) A is false but R is true

Q16. Harappan settlements have shown presence of granaries. This indicates:
(A) Trade was not practiced
(B) Importance of religious buildings
(C) Surplus grain production
(D) Lack of agricultural knowledge
Answer: (C) Surplus grain production

Q17. Very Short Answer:
What was the main purpose of Harappan seals?
Answer: Harappan seals were mainly used for trade, authentication, and possibly administrative purposes.

Q18. Very Short Answer:
Name any two raw materials used by Harappans for making beads.
Answer: Carnelian and shell.

Q19. What is meant by the term “material culture” in the context of Harappan Civilization?
Answer:
Material culture refers to the physical remains left behind by the Harappans, such as tools, ornaments, pottery, seals, buildings, and other artefacts. These items help archaeologists reconstruct the lifestyle, economy, and social structure of the civilization.

Q20. How do archaeologists identify social differences in Harappan society?
Answer:
Archaeologists identify social differences by examining the size and layout of houses, types of burial goods, and artefacts. For instance, large houses with multiple rooms and luxury items indicate higher status, while smaller homes and simple burials reflect modest living.

Q21. Give two evidences that suggest that Harappans had trade relations with distant lands.
Answer:
The presence of Harappan seals and goods in Mesopotamian sites, where they were called “Meluhha.”
Materials like lapis lazuli and marine shells, not locally available, were found in Harappan cities, indicating long-distance trade.

Q22. What does the layout of Mohenjodaro tell us about Harappan urban planning?
Answer:
The grid-pattern layout, with streets crossing at right angles, presence of public buildings like the Great Bath, drainage systems, and division into citadel and lower town, indicate sophisticated and planned urban development.

Q23. Mention two reasons why the Harappan script remains undeciphered.
Answer:
The inscriptions are very short, making it difficult to derive meanings.
There is no bilingual inscription or known reference language to compare and decipher the script.

Q24. Explain any three ways in which Harappan towns were linked with the countryside.
Answer:
Towns depended on rural areas for food grains and raw materials like wood, stone, and metal.
Agricultural produce like wheat and barley was grown in rural areas and brought to the towns.
Villages supported artisans with raw materials, and towns provided a market for finished products.

Q25. Describe the methods used by archaeologists to reconstruct dietary practices of the Harappans.
Answer:
Study of plant remains like grains, seeds, and food traces found at excavation sites.
Examination of animal bones to understand meat consumption.
Analysis of tools like saddle querns and mortars used for grinding food.

Q26. What do burial practices reveal about the beliefs of the Harappans?
Answer:
Burial practices such as laying the body in specific positions, placing grave goods, and the presence of ornaments suggest that Harappans believed in life after death. However, variations in graves also imply diversity in beliefs and status.

Q27. What are the limitations of archaeological evidence in understanding Harappan society?
Answer:
The Harappan script is undeciphered, limiting interpretation of texts.
Organic materials like textiles and wooden objects have not survived.
Interpretation depends on material remains, which can be incomplete or degraded.

Q28. Discuss three features of the craft production in the Harappan Civilization.
Answer:
Use of diverse raw materials like carnelian, copper, shell, and faience.
Presence of specialized production centres such as bead-making units at Lothal.
Skilled techniques including stone drilling, polishing, and moulding of ornaments.

Q29. Case Study:
Read the following extract and answer the questions below:
“Several archaeologists have used the evidence of structured settlements, standardized brick sizes, and the uniformity of weights and measures to suggest the existence of a centralised authority in Harappan society. However, no evidence of palaces, temples, or royal tombs has been found.”
Answer the following:
(a) What does the uniformity of bricks and weights suggest?
(b) Why is the absence of palaces or royal tombs significant?
(c) Name two urban centres of the Harappan Civilization.
(d) What can be inferred about Harappan political structure from this evidence?
Answer:
(a) It suggests a centralized planning or shared cultural norms across settlements.
(b) It indicates that political power may not have been concentrated in kings or elaborate monarchies.
(c) Mohenjodaro and Harappa.
(d) Harappan political organization was possibly collective or governed by city elites or administrators, not monarchs.

Q30.
Case Study:
Read the following and answer the questions:
“Archaeologists have found remains of ploughed fields at Kalibangan and irrigation systems in Dholavira. These suggest that the Harappans practiced advanced agriculture suited to different environmental conditions.”
Answer the following:
(a) What do ploughed fields indicate?
(b) How did Dholavira manage its water resources?
(c) Name two crops grown by the Harappans.
(d) What does this tell us about Harappan adaptation?
Answer:
(a) That farming techniques like crop rows and soil preparation were used.
(b) Through a series of reservoirs, drains, and water channels.
(c) Wheat and barley.
(d) Harappans modified their agricultural practices to suit local geography and climate.

Q31.
Case Study:
Refer to the following:
“Beads made of carnelian, shell bangles, and faience objects have been found in various sites. Artisans were possibly organized into workshops, with evidence of drills and furnaces.”
Answer the following:
(a) What is faience?
(b) Where was bead-making most prominent?
(c) What do these findings suggest about Harappan crafts?
(d) Why is the evidence of furnaces and drills important?
Answer:
(a) A glazed, non-clay material used for making beads and ornaments.
(b) Lothal.
(c) That there was craft specialization and skilled labour.
(d) It shows organized production and advanced techniques in manufacturing.

Q32. Explain the contributions of archaeology in reconstructing the history of the Harappan Civilization.
Answer:
Archaeology is the main source of Harappan history, as no written texts are available.
Excavations at sites like Harappa, Mohenjodaro, and Dholavira have uncovered city layouts, drainage, and structures.
Artefacts like seals, pottery, beads, and tools reveal details of economy, trade, and crafts.
Burial sites provide insights into social divisions and belief systems.
Scientific techniques like stratigraphy, carbon dating, and residue analysis help in understanding chronology and usage.

Q33. Describe the urban features of Mohenjodaro. How do they reflect planning and governance?
Answer:
The city was divided into a Citadel and Lower Town, indicating zoned planning.
Streets were laid out in a grid pattern, with standard width and intersecting at right angles.
Houses had private wells, bathing areas, and drains connected to a city-wide drainage system.
Public structures like the Great Bath and granaries imply collective functions.
Uniform brick size and standardized construction reflect central authority and civic administration.

Q34. Discuss the reasons for the decline of the Harappan Civilization.
Answer:
Environmental changes: Rivers like the Ghaggar-Hakra may have dried up, leading to drought.
Natural disasters: Floods in areas like Mohenjodaro damaged urban infrastructure.
Resource depletion: Overuse of forests and soil could have made agriculture unsustainable.
Trade decline: Long-distance trade with Mesopotamia may have reduced.
Gradual abandonment: Cities were slowly vacated, not destroyed suddenly—suggesting social or ecological stresses.

Q35. How did the Harappan Civilization reflect an integrated social and economic system?
Answer:
Urban centres were connected to the rural hinterlands that provided raw materials and food.
Trade networks connected various Harappan cities and foreign lands like Mesopotamia.
Standardization in weights, measures, and materials indicates centralized control.
Artisans produced specialized goods, supported by infrastructure like workshops.
Collective efforts in water management, city planning, and trade imply a well-knit, interdependent system.

QUESTIONS FROM COMPETITION EXAMS

🔵 Q1. Harappan civilization is also called:
(A) Bronze Age Civilization
(B) Stone Age Civilization
(C) Iron Age Civilization
(D) Vedic Civilization
✅ Answer: (A) Bronze Age Civilization
📅 Exam: UPSC Prelims 2013
📝 Explanation: Harappans used bronze extensively.
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🔵 Q2. Which river was associated with most Harappan cities?
(A) Indus
(B) Ganga
(C) Brahmaputra
(D) Yamuna
✅ Answer: (A) Indus
📅 Exam: UPSC Prelims 2015
📝 Explanation: Majority settlements on Indus system.
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🔵 Q3. Which site had an artificial dockyard?
(A) Harappa
(B) Lothal
(C) Dholavira
(D) Mohenjo-daro
✅ Answer: (B) Lothal
📅 Exam: SSC CHSL 2016
📝 Explanation: Lothal had a dock for trade.
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🔵 Q4. Script of Harappans was:
(A) Alphabetical
(B) Pictographic
(C) Numeric
(D) Hieroglyphic
✅ Answer: (B) Pictographic
📅 Exam: SSC CGL 2017
📝 Explanation: Symbols represented objects.
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🔵 Q5. Harappan weights were usually made of:
(A) Iron
(B) Stone
(C) Wood
(D) Bronze
✅ Answer: (B) Stone
📅 Exam: SSC MTS 2015
📝 Explanation: Standardized stone cubes used.
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🔵 Q6. The most common Harappan material for ornaments:
(A) Gold
(B) Bronze
(C) Terracotta
(D) Beads
✅ Answer: (D) Beads
📅 Exam: SSC CPO 2016
📝 Explanation: Beads were highly valued.
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🔵 Q7. Which site shows earliest evidence of ploughed fields?
(A) Kalibangan
(B) Mohenjo-daro
(C) Harappa
(D) Dholavira
✅ Answer: (A) Kalibangan
📅 Exam: UPSC Prelims 2016
📝 Explanation: Furrow marks found.
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🔵 Q8. Harappan seals were mostly made of:
(A) Metal
(B) Terracotta
(C) Steatite
(D) Ivory
✅ Answer: (C) Steatite
📅 Exam: SSC CHSL 2017
📝 Explanation: Steatite was soft, ideal for carving.
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🔵 Q9. Purpose of seals was mainly for:
(A) Currency
(B) Education
(C) Trade and Identification
(D) Religious texts
✅ Answer: (C) Trade and Identification
📅 Exam: SSC CGL 2016
📝 Explanation: Used on goods and packages.
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🔵 Q10. Which site provides evidence of water harvesting?
(A) Harappa
(B) Mohenjo-daro
(C) Dholavira
(D) Lothal
✅ Answer: (C) Dholavira
📅 Exam: UPSC Prelims 2017
📝 Explanation: Reservoirs, water conservation.
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🔵 Q11. The Great Bath is located at:
(A) Lothal
(B) Harappa
(C) Dholavira
(D) Mohenjo-daro
✅ Answer: (D) Mohenjo-daro
📅 Exam: SSC CGL 2015
📝 Explanation: Major ritualistic structure.
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🔵 Q12. Mesopotamia called Harappan traders:
(A) Meluhha
(B) Magan
(C) Dilmun
(D) Punt
✅ Answer: (A) Meluhha
📅 Exam: SSC CHSL 2016
📝 Explanation: Mesopotamian records confirm.
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🔵 Q13. The Harappans did not use:
(A) Gold
(B) Iron
(C) Copper
(D) Bronze
✅ Answer: (B) Iron
📅 Exam: SSC GD 2018
📝 Explanation: Iron came later in history.
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🔵 Q14. Harappan bricks were mostly:
(A) Rectangular burnt bricks
(B) Sun-dried bricks
(C) Irregular shaped stones
(D) Marble
✅ Answer: (A) Rectangular burnt bricks
📅 Exam: SSC JE 2019
📝 Explanation: Standardized baked bricks.
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🔵 Q15. Harappan weights followed:
(A) Decimal system
(B) Binary system
(C) Hexadecimal
(D) Roman
✅ Answer: (A) Decimal system
📅 Exam: SSC CGL 2017
📝 Explanation: Units based on multiples of 10.
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🔵 Q16. Evidence of cotton cultivation found at:
(A) Mohenjo-daro
(B) Mehrgarh
(C) Harappa
(D) Kalibangan
✅ Answer: (B) Mehrgarh
📅 Exam: UPSC Prelims 2015
📝 Explanation: Early farming site.
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🔵 Q17. Harappan burial customs included:
(A) Cremation
(B) Extended burial
(C) Burial with pottery
(D) Both B and C
✅ Answer: (D) Both B and C
📅 Exam: SSC MTS 2015
📝 Explanation: Extended position and pottery common.
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🔵 Q18. Which is NOT a Harappan site?
(A) Lothal
(B) Kalibangan
(C) Dholavira
(D) Pataliputra
✅ Answer: (D) Pataliputra
📅 Exam: SSC CHSL 2017
📝 Explanation: Pataliputra is later Mauryan.